VANADIUM

Vanadium is extracted from vanadiferous ores, slags and residues and converted into vanadium pentoxide or trioxide. Most vanadium pentoxide is then converted into ferrovanadium. In 2022, a majority of the world’s supply of vanadium was derived either from vanadiferous titanomagnetite (VTM) mineral concentrates or from steelmaking slags, where the steel is produced from VTM. Production Industry convention for describing vanadium production usually applies the terms primary production (occurs from mined ore as mineral concentrates from VTM and sandstone-hosted vanadium), joint production (from vanadium slags that are produced during steelmaking) and secondary production (from residues and industrial waste materials), according to the raw-material source for production. The United States did not produce any primary vanadium in 2022. Vanadium production in Utah from the mining of uraniferous sandstones on the Colorado Plateau ceased in early 2020 and has not restarted since. The United States continued to be a major producer of vanadium products from secondary sources such as spent catalysts, ashes and petroleum residues. Secondary vanadium production continued in Arkansas, Ohio and Pennsylvania, where processed waste materials were used to produce ferrovanadium, vanadium-bearing chemicals or specialty alloys and vanadium pentoxide. One additional secondary producer in Texas has reopened. In 2022, the vanadium-producing nations (from ore, concentrate and slag) included China (68 percent), Russia (17 percent), South Africa (9 percent) and Brazil (6 percent). Combined, they produced an estimated total of 100 kt of contained vanadium, a 3 percent decrease from that in 2021. Significant producers of secondary vanadium outside of the United States included Austria, Germany and Japan. Energy Fuels Inc.’s White Mesa Mill, near Blanding, UT, had the only vanadium coproduct recovery circuit in the United States. Energy Fuels resumed vanadium production in early 2019 using new recovery techniques to recover vanadium from its existing tailings pond solutions. Vanadium coproduction had not occurred at the White Mesa facility since 2013, owing to low prices. Energy Fuels announced that no vanadium production was expected during 2022, although the company sold some of its existing vanadium inventory in early 2022 and was expected to evaluate the potential for future production in 2023 in response to market changes. AMG Vanadium LLC announced that its new vanadium spent-catalyst recycling facility started operations in October 2022. The new facility was in Zanesville, OH, 25 miles west of its existing facility in Muskingum County, OH, and was expected to have an annual spent-catalyst recycling capacity of more than 35 kt and an annual vanadium capacity of 2.7 kt. Largo Resources USA Inc., a subsidiary of Largo Inc., has signed a 10-year offtake agreement with Gladieux Metals Recyling (GMR), a spent petroleum catalyst recycler, for the purchase of all standard and high-purity vanadium products from GMR’s recycling facility in Freeport, TX. Gladieux has an annual recycling capacity of 55 kt with an estimated 5 kt/a of V2O5 equivalent production capacity. Consumption Vanadium’s primary use is as a hardening agent in steel, in which it is critical for imparting strength, toughness and wear resistance. These properties are especially important in high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels, particularly for products in the construction industry and in tool steel. A smaller but essential use is in titanium aerospace alloys, for both military and commercial aircrafts. Nonmetallurgical applications include catalysts, ceramics, electronics, and vanadium chemicals, including large-scale energy storage. Catalysts are the leading nonmetallurgical use for vanadium. Prices In 2022, the average Chinese vanadium pentoxide price was $9.250/lb of contained vanadium, a 13 percent increase compared with $8.172/lb in 2021. The annual average U.S. ferrovanadium price increased by 51 percent to $23.78/lb of contained vanadium in 2022 compared with $15.77/lb in 2021. Foreign trade The United States continued to be a net importer of many vanadium materials in 2022. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the United States imported (measured in vanadium content) 2.67 kt of ferrovanadium, 1.98 kt of vanadium pentoxide and 222 t of other oxides and hydroxides of vanadium. Total imports for consumption of all vanadiumbearing materials increased by 29 percent from those in 2021. In 2021, the United States exported (measured in vanadium content) 171 t of ferrovanadium, 143 t of vanadium pentoxide and 309 t of other oxides and hydroxides of vanadium. Total exports of all vanadium bearing materials increased by 28 percent from those in 2021. Outlook As the majority of vanadium is consumed in the production of steel, consumption trends are greatly influenced by trends in steel production; the range of steel grades that contain vanadium has continued to increase. The outlook for vanadium consumption in nonferrous alloys is largely dependent on trends in demand for titanium alloys in business, commercial and military aircrafts. As worldwide environmental regulations continue to become more stringent on fuels and other environmental waste, recovery of elements including vanadium from spent catalysts and fossil fuel residues is expected to increase. Consumption of vanadium continued to increase in 2022 as economies recovered from the global COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to growth from the steel sector, one area of continued growth was in the energy storage market, specifically with vanadium redox batteries (VRFBs). China, India and the United States were expected to account for two-thirds of the global renewable-energy expansion. Many countries are seeking to meet renewable-energy targets, and VRFB storage was a potential solution, with many countries having numerous implementations already underway. However, the VRFB has several barriers that still need to be overcome: the high cost of the electrolyte used in the VRFBs, the system complexity of the batteries, and the lack of proper standards continued to be constraints for widespread use of VRFBs. References are available from the author.

VANADIUM

Authored by:
Desiree E. Polyak

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From sessions to strategy: Revealing long-term and emerging innovation trends in data analytics, intelligent systems and automation

Mining education gets federal boost as industry faces workforce crunch

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To view the past issues of the UCA magazine you must be a member of SME/UCA.

TITANIUM

VERMICULITE

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