Prospects of vanadium extraction from different secondary sources: A review

This work highlights the potential for vanadium extraction from secondary resources and explores the various extraction techniques being investigated, along with the challenges associated with purifying vanadium from such complex materials. Vanadium, frequently referred to as the “industrial vitamin,” is a crucial strategic metal valued for its multifaceted applications in industries such as alloys, steel production, energy storage, medicine, chemicals, ceramics and pigments. As demand rises, concerns about potential supply shortages are increasing. In this paper, the significance and urgency of extracting vanadium from the expanding realm of secondary resources are highlighted. Furthermore, various basic extraction techniques employed for the efficient extraction, separation and recovery of vanadium from these complex materials are examined and their advantages, disadvantages and future prospects discussed. Background Vanadium is a vital metal utilized across numerous industries, including steel production, alloy fabrication, catalysis, aerospace and energy storage. A noteworthy application is the utilization of vanadium in vanadium redox-flow batteries (VRFBs), which are increasingly important due to the surging demand for large-scale energy storage solutions. In 2024, vanadium consumption declined by 8 percent due to reduced steel alloy production, while demand in the energy sector continues to rise (Fig 1). Presently, approximately 17 percent of the vanadium supply comes from primary sources, 10 percent from secondary resources, and the remaining 73 percent is produced as coproducts. Vanadium demand is either met through primary reserves (mineral ores, vanadium titanomagnetite and vanadium-bearing shale), secondary sources (such as fly ash, spent catalysts and Bayer sludge) and coproducts (vanadium-bearing steel slag). However, the current primary reserves of vanadium are insufficient to meet future demand, highlighting the need to expand the exploration of secondary resources and develop efficient extraction methods from waste materials. Secondary sources contribute about 10 percent of production, while coproducts account for 73 percent. A survey of the literature reveals that numerous studies have dedicated efforts to developing efficient extraction processes for this essential metal from a range of industrial wastes and low-grade materials. Key sources include fly ash, spent catalysts, Bayer sludge, mine tailings, alloy scraps, slags and industrial effluents. As demand for vanadium rises, it is crucial to utilize underexploited resources, including waste water, industrial byproducts such as coal cinders, vanadium containing metal scraps, and mine tailings. Our evaluation aims to provide a succinct overview of these current and emerging secondary resources for vanadium. Results and discussion Secondary sources of vanadium include significant quantities obtained from the operations of other industries. This paper presents a concise overview of a whole gamut of vanadium secondary resources, their origins and chemical characteristics along with their respective extraction methods. The chemical compositions of various secondary vanadium sources, as reported in the literature, are summarized in Table 1. The metallurgical extraction/industrial recovery of metals from primary or secondary sources is mainly done by two processes: (1) pyrometallurgy and (2) hydrometallurgy. However, with changing times and the emergence of new resources, these methods alone are not enough to carry out efficient extraction. Therefore, an integration of both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques is required to perform extraction operations with better efficiency and profits. Roasting, smelting, melting and hot chlorination are the primary pyrometallurgical treatments used in the process of vanadium extraction. Chlorinated metallurgy has emerged as a cleaner and more promising technology for the effective separation of vanadium from slag and spent catalysts. Fig. 1 Global vanadium market demand. Hydrometallurgical recovery of vanadium involves roasting, leaching and purification processes, with several technological approaches such as microwave, ultrasound and bioleaching. This review categorizes hydrometallurgical extraction technologies of vanadium into three main steps: metal dissolution, concentration and purification, and final recovery. The first stage is metal dissolution, where the targeted metal is extracted through leaching. Leaching can be divided into direct and roasting-assisted leaching (blank, sodium and calcium roasting) and can be categorized based on the lixiviants employed: water leaching, alkali leaching (using sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or ammonia), and acid leaching (utilizing sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric or oxalic acids) are discussed in detail in the full paper. The second stage involves concentration and purification. The final stage is the metal recovery step, where the targeted metal is extracted. Vanadium is not found in its pure form in the pregnant leached solution, and the types of contaminants present typically depend on the source materials. A variety of separation techniques are employed to remove vanadium from leach solutions of secondary sources, including selective precipitation, solvent extraction, ion exchange and adsorption. These are reviewed in the paper, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Conclusion Vanadium’s application in specialty steel and energy storage, particularly for VRFBs, has raised concerns about its potential supply. Current resources may not suffice, leading to interest in secondary sources like waste water, which offers significant recycling potential for vanadium recovery. This paper discusses secondary vanadium sources, particularly vanadium-bearing gasifier slag (VBGS) from the petroleum sector, which is valuable for industrial use and waste management. As coal gasification increases, slags may become the main vanadium source. The reuse of mine tailings and alloy scraps reduces mining needs, while alumina plant sludge is promising due to its vanadium concentration. Standard extraction methods include roasting, leaching, solvent extraction, adsorption and ion exchange. This work summarizes vanadium removal processes and highlights the need for innovative methods and adsorbents that improve recovery and offer economic and environmental benefits. Advanced leaching techniques, such as ultrasound and microwave-assisted processes, have shown improved efficiency for secondary sources. n References A list of all references is available in the full paper.

Prospects of vanadium extraction from different secondary sources: A review

Authored by: Susmita Mohanta, Akshay Kumar, Shibsundar Dasa, Ankita Dash, K.K. Sahu and D. Mishra

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