Industrial Minerals review 2025

Foreword by Mike Driscoll Greening the future of industrial minerals The future for the industrial minerals sector, and of mining in general, is being shaped by a new order of geopolitical and environmental factors. Last year’s foreword focused on an example of the former (U.S. tariff impact). Here, we shall focus on the latter, and in particular on mineral recycling. Mineral recycling is one of the two missions of the mineral industry right now; the other is decarbonization. Get these right and the industry will be more resilient to the challenges to come, plus making much-needed improvements to our environment.But mineral recycling should not be viewed as simply responding to environmental pressures, a checkbox on the corporate portfolio to allay fears and protests of damage to the environment, leading to charges of so-called greenwashing. While mineral recycling will be an important contributor to the circular economy and assisting in climate protection, it will also evolve as an essential alternative source of raw materials, presenting opportunities in mineral recycling project developments, and increased innovation and supply of pertinent processing and sorting technologies. This new era of industrial mineral recycling is already underway and gaining momentum. But it is not plain sailing, mindsets need to be adopted and correct processes employed. Key questions raised include: How to go about getting involved in this sector? Whether to vertically integrate? Invest for an in-house business/plant? How much and how far to invest? What kind of processing/sorting technology is required? Partner with/acquire an independent recycler? Join forces with same-sector end-use players? What kind of logistics are involved? Permits for handling/transport? Costs? Crucially: making grade acceptable, consistent and economic for customers? Mineral recycling key drivers The primary drivers, which may be interlinked, responsible for accelerating industrial mineral recycling and, in particular, its growing requirement for domestic markets, may be summarized as follows: Environment and market awareness of it: Climate change — saving the environment; carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction; overall drive for the “circular economy” gathering momentum; sustainable development of raw materials; and, crucially, mineral-bearing end-product manufacturers (that is, the mineral consumers) having an increasing need to show evidence of green credentials in raw material sourcing and production (such as sustainability, CO2 footprint). Cost factors: Rising costs of primary mineral mining and processing, energy, logistics, waste treatment, landfill, future “environment” penalties. Limited primary sources: Risky overreliance on supply/trade from limited overseas sources; for certain minerals, shortage of commercially developed mineral resources and processing plants. Supply-chain vulnerability: Logistics stress; geopolitical impact; vulnerability particularly spotlighted by COVID-19 pandemic, Russia-Ukraine war, U.S. trade tariff issues, U.S.-Iran conflict, China-Taiwan? China in change: Relevant owing to China’s mainstay as world mineral supplier — overreliance by global consumers?; domestic supply issues impacted by wide range of factors = unpredictability in export availability and prices; end of an era for low-cost import reliance? Time to de-risk? = boost to alternative mineral source development outside China, including recycled materials as option. “Criticality” of minerals recognized: Critical raw materials (CRM) recognized; “critical” and “strategic” mineral awareness now more mainstream, particularly in the energy sector (such as lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicles, solar, wind) and also electronics (such as semiconductors) = increasing government awareness/action/support/investment to include recycling programs. Recycling technology more economic/established: Evolved from somewhat esoteric, expensive mineral processing sideshow to mainstream processing line; advances in processing and sorting technology; opportunities now sensed and sought after; and, significantly, more primary mineral miners increasing mine waste recycling efforts. Government initiatives and priority awareness Regarding state activity in mineral recycling, the European Commission (EC) has been leading the way forward with a raft of ongoing proposals and initiatives since the early 2000s. This represents an all-out effort to push European Union (EU) countries toward a circular economy. The Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) of 2024 stated three benchmarks for the EU’s annual consumption of CRM: 10 percent from local extraction, 40 percent to be processed and 25 percent to come from recycled materials by 2030. Then in December 2025, the RESourceEU Action Plan 2025 was adopted to boost the CRMA objectives by “Unleashing The Circularity and Innovation Potential” — that is, keeping CRMs in the EU and recycling the resources already available, incentivizing the recycling of CRM, and stimulating innovation to enable substitution and efficiencies. There has been criticism of a lack of action in these initiatives. A boost is expected from the EU Circular Economy Act 2026, due for adoption in late 2026, aiming to establish a single market for secondary raw materials, increase the supply of high-quality recycled materials, and stimulate demand for these materials within the EU, including stockpiling of recycled CRM. The overall aim is to double the EU’s recycled-material use rate from 12 to 24 percent by 2030. EC president Ursula von der Leyen at the European Industry Summit in Antwerp, Belgium, on Feb. 27, 2025, urged: “We need a paradigm shift on circular economy. We have to keep critical raw materials waste in Europe and give it new life.” The United States, although somewhat belated in its approach to mineral supply chains and secondary raw materials, has been very busy in recent years with a string of executive orders focusing on rejuvenating and funding U.S. CRM resource and recycling projects, including mine waste: for example, Executive Order (EO) 14154 “Unleashing American Energy” in January 2025, EO 14241 “Immediate Measures to Increase American Mineral Production” in March 2025 and, not least, the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) of 2022, which through a series of tax credits aims to enhance the transition to a circular economy by driving demand for recycled critical minerals. How successful will these measures be? Let us see. What is being recycled? So, in short, tomorrow’s “mining” will in large part be efficient and economic utilization of today’s industrial waste. The latest trends and development in this growth sector are regularly under the spotlight at IMFORMED’s annual Mineral Recycling Forum, held April 15-17 this year in Cannes, France. There are three primary recyclable waste streams for industrial minerals: Mining and mineral processing waste: generated at the mine or processing plant. Examples: LKAB, Sweden, to process iron ore tailings for rare earth elements, phosphorus, gypsum; Baie Minerals, ECO2, Exterra Carbon Solutions, Canada, all targeting asbestos mine tailings for magnesium oxide (MgO); ElementUS, United States, developing process for bauxite red mud to yield gallium and scandium (recently received $29.9 million funding from the U.S. Department of War) and $67 million from the U.S. Department of Energy); Arkema-Nutrien, United States, joint venture processing phosphate rock waste fluorosilicicacid (FSA) to anhydrous hydrofluoric acid (HF); Fluorsid, Italy, also developing FSA process for synthetic fluorspar and precipitated silica; Imerys, China, recycling waste from ground calcium carbonate processing; Colorado School of Mines 2025 study revealed mining waste from just 54 active U.S. sites “contains enough CRM to meaningfully shore up domestic supply chains.” Mineral-bearing intermediate/end-product manufacturing waste: generated by the intermediate mineral consumer, manufacturing the end-product. Examples: ElementUS, United States, developing sintered alumina/spinel refractory material from secondary aluminium salt dross; Mota Ceramic Solutions, Portugal, expanding operations to recover and reprocess ceramic manufacturing waste; Gannon Eco, Republic of Ireland, expanding operations to recycle semiconductor manufacturing waste containing reusable HF. Spent/waste mineral-bearing end-products: generated after utilization by the ultimate end-user. Examples: Sibelco, Europe and North America, expanding projects to recycle glass (and supply primary silica sand); RHI Magnesita, Refratechnik, REF Minerals, Horn, Europe, steadily increasing rate of refractory recycling; MP Materials/Apple, United States, new partnership to use recycled rare earth magnets; widespread efforts, Europe and United States, to process lithium carbonate from black mass (recycled from lithium-ion batteries), Ascend Elements, United States, succeeded in 2025. Alternative sourcing option evolving All this has triggered the evolution of a new mine-to-market supply chain option for consumers of industrial minerals, with the intermediate stages of the mineral processor and the trader extending their activities to encompass specific mineral waste stream sourcing and recycling. The evolving mindset has also shifted upward to the primary miners, which are now seeking to reevaluate and reprocess their long-standing mine tailings. One of the chief aspects to consider now is the growing trend, unlikely to diminish, from mineral consumers required to demonstrate to their customers how they are “greening” their raw material supply-chain and manufacturing processes. This may include proof of sustainable mineral sourcing, (increasing) levels of recycled material used in the end-product, reduction of CO2 footprint in mineral supply and manufacturing. The upshot is that we should see more moves from mineral buyers (and producers) to on- and near-shore mineral sourcing to markets in order to reduce the carbon footprint in logistics, plus see more mineral recycling projects closer to markets. However, in order to make the entire recycling loop function, both efficiently and economically, there needs to be continuous and growing alliances and collaboration between each of the mineral recycling supply-chain stages. In particular, there must be a mindset on the part of product manufacturers to raise the degree or ease of recyclability of the spent end-product, as well as ensuring increasing volumes of recycled material maintain the desired performance of the product cooperation with the suppliers. Refractory market leading the way The good news is that we are starting to see evidence of this in the mineral industry in Europe. The refractories industry is a good example, where magnesium oxide-carbon (MgO-C) bricks can perform with up to 30 percent recycled material. Catching up fast in this field are Turkey, India and South Korea.In addition to high landfill costs (in Europe), and limited supply sources for certain refractory minerals, raw materials used to manufacture refractory bricks can account for up to 90 percent of their total carbon footprint.In the United States, the refractory recycling sector is in its early days, and this needs to ramp up. The United States relies on significant import volumes of refractory minerals, particularly from China: Bauxite, 100 percent (net import reliance), from China, Guyana. Graphite, 100 percent, China, Canada, Mozambique, Mexico. Fused alumina, more than 95 percent, China, Canada, Brazil, Austria. Chromium, more than 79 percent, South Africa, Kazakhstan, Finland, Canada. Silicon carbide, 74 percent, China, Brazil. Alumina, 71 percent from Brazil, Jamaica, Australia, Canada. Magnesia, 52 percent, China, Israel, Brazil, Canada. There has been progress over the last two years with increased activity from leading consumers such as HarbisonWalker International, and strategic acquisitions, such as RHI Magnesita buying established U.S. recycler BPI Inc. Recycling future in perspective When one considers the plethora of end-markets served by industrial minerals, just think that each of these is embarking on its own specific journey to increased recycling of their products and working toward using increasing levels of recycled raw materials in them. For perspective, according to IMFORMED research, ceramics consume some 40 different types of industrial minerals; paint/pigments, chemicals, agrimarkets, glass and food/pharma each use more than 30 different minerals; oilfield drilling, plastics, construction, abrasives, cement, refractories use more than 20 minerals.That is a whole lot of opportunity in the development of industrial mineral recycling for the future, certainly the smart solution for helping both the sourcing and the circular economy. (Mike O’Driscoll is director and cofounder of IMFORMED Industrial Mineral Forums & Research Ltd, UK; organizing Fluorine Forum 2026, Baveno, Lake Maggiore, Oct. 26-28, Salt Forum 2026, Cannes, Nov. 16-18; Mineral Recycling Forum 2027; MagForum 2027, Antalya, May 24-26. Email mike@imformed.com or visit www.imformed.com.) Barite by Ji-Eun Kim, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Barite is the mineralogical name for barium sulfate (BaSO4). In commerce, the mineral is sometimes referred to as baryte. Barite is primarily used as a solid-state weighting agent in drilling fluids for oil and natural-gas drilling due to its high specific gravity (SG), low abrasion, chemical and physical inertness, low oil absorption, low solubility, nontoxicity and relatively low cost. This use typically accounts for more than 90 percent of domestic consumption, according to reports from domestic barite crushers and grinders, and approximately 70 percent of global consumption. Most barite ores require some upgrading to achieve minimum commercial purity or density levels, which includes undergoing simple beneficiation methods, such as jigging, tabling and washing, or more complex methods, such as flotation, heavy-media separation or magnetic separation. Barite was included in the U.S. Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals, published in the Federal Register (90 FR 50494). Production and consumption Through October 2025, the world annual average rig count excluding the United States was 1,258 compared with 1,349 through the same period in 2024. Domestic average rig count was 564 compared with 599 through the same period in 2024. Domestically, an estimated 2.3 Mt of barite (from domestic production and imports) was sold by crushers and grinders operating in nine states. Despite the decrease in global and domestic drill rig counts, global barite sales were estimated to have increased, likely owing to deeper oil and gas wells. Domestic barite production increased, but data were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Three companies mined barite at four operations in Nevada. Halliburton Energy Services Inc. operated the Rossi Mine, M-I SWACO operated the Greystone Mine and Mountain Springs Mine, and Progressive Contracting Inc. operated the Coyote Mine. World production of barite in 2025, excluding the United States, was estimated as 8.7 Mt, a 9 percent increase compared to 2024. Most of the increase was from India, which is currently the leading global producer of barite. Production in India was estimated to have increased to 3 Mt compared to 2.6 Mt in 2024. Other leading barite producing countries were China and Morocco, with production of 2.2 Mt and 1 Mt, respectively. As India continues to elevate its barite production, there are discussions that the barite reserve depletion in India could possibly lead to India becoming a barite importing country in the next 10 years. Most of India’s barite is produced in Andhra Pradesh, particularly at the Mangampet Mine in the Annamaya district. Imports and exports According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2025, U.S. barite imports were 1.81 Mt, unchanged from 2024. The leading import sources, in descending order of quantity, were India (727 kt), Morocco (340 kt), Mexico (304 kt), Laos (252 kt) and China (167 kt). Together, these five countries accounted for 99 percent of domestic barite imports. Since 2022, it is notable that imports from China have decreased while imports from Laos have increased. Domestic barite exports were 64.3 kt in 2025, a decrease of 1 percent from 65 kt in 2024. The leading destinations of barite exports were Canada (50 kt) and Mexico (9 kt). Together, these two countries accounted for 92 percent of domestic barite exports. Prices Fastmarkets publishes annual average prices of unground lump barite meeting American Petroleum Institute specifications with SG of 4.2 from leading exporting countries. According to Fastmarkets, in 2025 the free-on-board (f.o.b.) annual average price from China was $129/t, an increase of 7 percent compared with $121/t in 2024. The f.o.b. annual average price from Chennai, India, was $137/t, an increase of 7 percent compared with $128/t in 2024. The f.o.b. annual average price from Morocco was $128/t, an increase of 6 percent compared with $121/t in 2024. Outlook Historically, trends in sales of ground barite generally mirrored trends in active drilling rig counts. However, it has become harder to forecast barite consumption based on upcoming drilling rig projects for oil and gas production owing to deeper oil and gas wells that require more barite use for fewer rigs. United States has historically been the world’s leading barite importer and is expected to remain a net importer over the next several years. References U.S. Department of the Interior, 2025, Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals: Federal Register, v. 90, no. 214, November 7, p. 50494-50497. Accessed March 17, 2026, at https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-11-07/pdf/2025-19813.pdf.U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Barite: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 48-49, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2026.Samdani MN, 2025, AP’s barytes reserves depletes fast as state extracts 3 million tonnes annually: The Times of India (Mumbai, Maharashtra, India), Sept. 13. Accessed March 23, 2026, at https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vijayawada/aps-barytes-reserves-depletes-fast-as-state-extracts-3-million-tonnes-annually/articleshow/123856317.cms.U.S. Census Bureau, 2026, USA Trade Online: U.S. Census Bureau.Fastmarkets, 2026, Fastmarkets: London, United Kingdom, Fastmarkets Global Ltd.Trade Data Monitor, 2026, Trade Data Monitor: Charleston, SC, Trade Data Monitor LLC. Bauxite and Alumina by Adam M. Merrill, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production In 2025, one alumina refinery in the United States produced alumina from imported bauxite. The 1.2-Mt/a refinery in Gramercy, LA, owned by Atlantic Alumina Co. LLC, produced alumina primarily for use in aluminum smelters, but it also produced chemical-grade alumina.The United States remains fully reliant on imports for metallurgical-grade bauxite. Small amounts of bauxite and bauxitic clays are mined in Alabama, Arkansas and Georgia for nonmetallurgical uses. Consumption and end-uses In 2025, total domestic consumption of bauxite (in crude dry equivalents) was estimated to be 1.7 Mt, 4 percent more than in 2024. Of this, approximately 63 percent was consumed to produce alumina or alumina hydroxide. The remainder was used to produce abrasives, cement, chemicals, proppants, refractories and as a slag adjuster in steel mills. Total domestic consumption of alumina by the aluminum industry was estimated to be 1.3 Mt in 2025, 2 percent less than in 2024. Other uses of alumina included catalysts for petroleum refining, as well as uses in ceramics, chemicals, refractories, fire suppression and water treatment. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, metallurgical-grade bauxite (crude dry) imports totaled 1.71 Mt in 2025, 18 percent less than in 2024. In 2025, the principal sources of metallurgical-grade bauxite were Jamaica (78 percent) and Turkey (19 percent). Imports of refractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2025 totaled 157 kt, 29 percent more than in 2024. The principal sources of refractory-grade calcined bauxite imports were China (18 percent) and Guyana (78 percent). Imports of nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2025 totaled 354 kt, 4 percent less than in 2024. Australia (46 percent) and Guyana (41 percent) were the principal sources of nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, alumina imports totaled 1.77 Mt in 2025, 32 percent more than in 2024. The leading sources of imported alumina were Brazil (70 percent) and Jamaica (13 percent). Exports of alumina in 2025 totaled 133 kt, 8 percent less than in 2024. The leading destinations of exported alumina were Mexico (24 percent), China including Hong Kong (18 percent) and Canada (17 percent). Prices According to the U.S. Census Bureau, values for imported bauxite varied depending on the source and grade in 2025. The average unit values, on a free-alongside-ship (f.a.s.) basis, for U.S bauxite imports fluctuated across major suppliers compared to 2024. For crude dry bauxite, values were $30/t from Jamaica (2 percent less) and $59/t from Turkey (23 percent more). Values for calcined bauxite generally declined from the previous year. Refractory grade was valued at $395/t from China (11 percent less) and $257/t from Guyana (2 percent less), while nonrefractory grade was valued at $44/t from Australia (17 percent less) and $120/t from Guyana (37 percent less). The average unit value, on an f.a.s. basis, of alumina imports remained unchanged at $580/t, while the value of alumina exports was 10 percent less at $3,550/t. Based on cargo sizes, export destinations and prices, it was assumed that most of the alumina exports in 2024 and 2025 were specialty grade alumina rather than smelter-grade alumina. Outlook Consumption of smelter-grade alumina in the United States was expected to rise as the Mt. Holly primary aluminum smelter in South Carolina was projected to return to full capacity by mid-2026. In contrast, demand for refractory-grade calcined bauxite was closely related to steel production. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) projects a 0.9 percent increase in primary metal production, a trend that refractory-grade calcined bauxite consumption was expected to follow. Meanwhile, consumption of nonsmelter-grade alumina and nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite was expected to track nonmetallic mineral production, which the EIA projected to decrease by 2.8 percent in 2026. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Bauxite and Alumina: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 51–52. Accessed March 23, 2026, at https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf.Century Aluminum Co., 2025, Citing benefits of 232 tariffs, Century Aluminum announces restart to bring Mt. Holly SC plant to full production, increasing U.S. aluminum production by 10%: Chicago, IL, Century Aluminum Co. press release, Aug. 7. Accessed Aug. 11, 2025, at https://centuryaluminum.com/investors/press-releases/press-release-details/2025/Citing-Benefits-of-232-Tariffs-Century-Aluminum-Announces-Restart-to-Bring-Mt--Holly-SC-Plant-to-Full-Production-Increasing-U-S--Aluminum-Production-by-10/default.aspx.U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2026, Short-term energy outlook March 2026: U.S. Energy Information Administration, March 10. Accessed March 23, 2026, at https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/steo/archives/mar26.pdf. Bentonite by Kristi J. Simmons, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Bentonite, a clay primarily comprising smectite minerals (usually montmorillonite) with minor amounts of feldspar, biotite and quartz, is formed from the alteration of volcanic ash. Bentonite, first discovered in the late 19th century near Fort Benton, MT, is often called the “clay of a thousand uses.” The physical and chemical properties of bentonite make it a highly absorbent and reactive material that is useful in a range of industries including agriculture, construction, cosmetic, drilling, pet care and environmental remediation. The bentonites used for industrial purposes are predominantly sodium montmorillonite or calcium montmorillonite. Sodium montmorillonite, also referred to as swelling bentonite, is predominantly produced in western states and can absorb several times its weight in water. Calcium montmorillonite, also referred to as nonswelling bentonite, is mostly produced in southern states. Bentonite, typically found in shallow deposits over expansive land areas, is primarily mined using openpit techniques. This versatile clay is found in a variety of colors including tan, gray-blue, olive, brown and white. Production In 2025, domestic bentonite production (the quantity sold or used by producers) was estimated to have increased by 3 percent to 4.1 Mt compared with 3.99 Mt in 2024. During the past 25 years, U.S. bentonite production fluctuated between a low of 3.65 Mt in 2009 to an all-time high of 4.99 Mt in 2011. In 2025, nonswelling and (or) swelling bentonite were produced in the following states, in alphabetical order: Alabama, Arizona, California, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Texas, Utah and Wyoming. Swelling bentonite accounted for an estimated 96 percent of all domestically produced bentonite. An estimated 95 percent of swelling bentonite was produced in Wyoming. As in past years, Alabama and Mississippi led in the production of domestic nonswelling bentonite.Bentonite is widely available in many countries around the world. In 2025, global bentonite production was estimated to be 20 Mt, compared with 19.4 Mt in 2024, with production from 51 countries. The United States continues to be the global leader in the production of bentonite, followed, in descending order, by India (estimated 3.7 Mt), Turkey (estimated 2.5 Mt) and China (estimated 2.1 Mt). Consumption Pet-waste absorbents (48 percent of sales) and drilling mud (22 percent) were estimated to be the leading domestic markets for bentonite in 2025. Bentonite was also sold for the manufacture of adhesives, animal food, civil engineering applications, filler and extender applications, foundry sand, pelletizing (iron ore) and waterproofing. Exported bentonite had similar uses to those of domestically consumed bentonite. Prices The average unit value of bentonite in 2025 was estimated to be $110/t compared with $105/t in 2024. The average unit value for exported bentonite was $311/t in 2025 compared with $261/t in 2024, and the average unit value for imported bentonite increased to $365/t in 2025 compared with $348/t in 2024. Average unit values for exports and imports fluctuate more than the average unit value of domestic production owing to the influence of small, high-value shipments. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, bentonite exports decreased to 564 kt valued at $175 million in 2025 compared with 735 kt valued at $192 million in 2024. The leading destinations for exports of bentonite in 2025 were Canada (38 percent), Japan (12 percent) and Mexico (9 percent). Lesser amounts were shipped to 71 other countries or localities. Bentonite imports decreased to 32 kt valued at $11.7 million in 2025 compared with 48.7 kt valued at $16.9 million in 2024. Mexico (42 percent), Canada (24 percent) and Turkey (15 percent) were the leading sources of bentonite imports while 24 other countries or localities provided lesser amounts in 2025. Outlook Bentonite’s diverse applications ensure it remains a mature and stable industry. The trend toward sustainability and the use of eco-friendly products, such as bentonite, will sustain the demand for bentonite. Pet-waste absorbents and drilling muds are expected to remain the leading uses of bentonite, continuing to influence its demand. The growing pet industry may result in increased consumption of bentonite for pet-waste absorbents. Additionally, bentonite production will be influenced by the natural-gas and petroleum well-drilling industries, although this sector has a greater level of fluctuation compared to the pet-care industry. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Clays: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 68–69, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf.U.S. Geological Survey, 2022, Clays statistics, in Kelly, T.D., and Matos, G.R., comps., Historical statistics for mineral and material commodities in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 140, accessed March 3, 2026, at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/historical-statistics-mineral-and-material-commodities-united-states#clay. Cement by A.K. Hatfield, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Portland, blended and masonry cement (cement) are construction materials that, when mixed with water, serve as the binder in concrete and most mortars. Cement contributes all of concrete’s compressional strength, despite only comprising about 13 percent of its content by weight. Cements are made from a material called clinker, which is finely ground into a powder and mixed with a small amount of gypsum and, increasingly, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Clinker is produced from a precise combination of calcareous, aluminous, ferrous and siliceous materials, which are transformed through pyroprocessing of the requisite materials in a rotary kiln. Production In 2025, production of cement in the United States, excluding Puerto Rico, was estimated to be 84 Mt, a 1.2 percent decrease from an estimated 85 Mt in 2024. Production in 2025 was 15 percent lower than the record of 99.3 Mt set in 2005 (Fig. 1). Total world cement production in 2025 was estimated to be 3.8 Gt, a 2.6 percent decrease from an estimated 3.9 Gt in 2024. China (1,700 Mt), India (470 Mt), Vietnam (100 Mt), Turkey (89 Mt) and the United States (84 Mt) continued to be the leading producers in 2025. The United States manufactured about 2 percent of cement produced worldwide.In 2025, plans to expand cement plants in Missouri, Texas and Wyoming progressed. In June, construction of a new slag cement grinding plant commenced in Indiana, and in October, a new grey cement grinding plant opened in Texas. However, cement plants have been closed or repurposed in California, Indiana, Maine and New York over the past few years (2022-2025). Consumption Domestic cement consumption in 2025, as measured by sales to final customers, was estimated to have decreased by 1.9 percent to 103 Mt from 105 Mt in 2024 and was 19 percent lower than the 2005 record consumption of 127.9 Mt. The difference between consumption and domestic production in 2025 was met, in part, by imports. Total imports of hydraulic cement and clinker in 2025 were 1.5 percent more than those reported in 2024 but were still well below the record of 35.9 Mt set in 2006. The leading cement-consuming states continued to be Texas, Florida and California, in descending order by tonnage. The major end-uses for cement in the United States are, in descending order by estimated market share, ready-mixed concrete, concrete product manufacturers, contractors and other customer types (such as building material dealers, government, mining, oil-well drilling, waste stabilization and (or) unspecified uses). Consumption of cement in 2025 likely decreased as a result of decreased construction starts of new housing units; increased costs for energy, material and service inputs; and other competing economic factors. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports of cement and clinker, including Puerto Rico, in 2025 were 25.4 Mt, compared with 25 Mt in 2024. In 2025, Turkey supplied 33 percent of U.S. cement imports, and Canada and Vietnam each supplied 19 percent of U.S. imports, with the remainder coming from several other countries. Exports of cement were 1.05 Mt, a 7.6 percent increase from 2024. Canada (76 percent), Commonwealth of The Bahamas and Mexico (6 percent each) received the majority of U.S. cement exports, with the remainder going to several other countries and localities. Prices The average mill net value of cement depends on application, quality, quantity purchased, source and type, and therefore encompasses a wide range of prices and was estimated to be $160/t in 2025. In recent years, increased prices have been partially attributed to increased costs of production, having increased from $125/t in 2020. During 2025, the overall value of sales was an estimated $17 billion. Environmental issues Large quantities of raw materials (mainly carbonate rocks, especially limestone) and fuels are burned at high temperatures to make clinker, resulting in emissions of large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) and potentially significant emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, mercury and some other metals, volatile organic carbon compounds and particulates. The cement industry is one of the leading industrial emitters of CO2, a greenhouse gas. Many plants have installed emissions-reduction equipment to comply with the 2010 National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP). In addition, the industry has announced numerous sustainability initiatives, and many plants have transitioned to portland-limestone blended cement (PLC). In 2025, blended cement accounted for 64 percent of total cement shipments and 96 percent of the blended shipments were estimated to be PLC (Type IL). Outlook Production of cement is expected to follow the trends in public sector and housing construction. However, readily available imports are likely to continue to augment domestic cement supply constrained by closed or idle plants and underutilized capacity. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Cement: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 62–63, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf. Chromium by Y. Rama Murthy, Research and Development Division, Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur, India Chromium is the key alloying element that converts ordinary steel into corrosion‑resistant stainless steel. It is considered a strategic/critical raw material due to its narrow geographical distribution and nonsubstitutable role in stainless steel. As stainless steel remains a fundamental material for infrastructure, energy and manufacturing, demand for chromium is structurally embedded in long‑term industrial growth. Chromium resources are predominantly found as chromite ore, with quality determined by chromium oxide (Cr2O3) content and chromium-to-iron (Cr:Fe) ratio. These resources are unevenly distributed globally, leading to a concentrated supply structure. The production process from mine to metal (through beneficiation, ferrochrome smelting and steelmaking) is energy intensive and technologically specialized, thus reinforcing chromium’s strategic importance in industrial and critical minerals frameworks. Production, consumption, import/export In 2025, the United States consumed an estimated 4 percent of world chromite ore production in various forms of imported materials, such as chromite ore, chromium chemicals, ferrochromium, chromium metal and stainless steel. Imported chromite ore was consumed by one company to produce chromium chemicals. Stainless-steel and heat-resisting-steel producers were the leading consumers of ferrochromium. Stainless steels and superalloys require the addition of chromium via chromium-containing scrap, chromium metal or ferrochromium. The value of chromium material consumption was estimated to be $720 million in 2025 (as measured by the value of net imports, excluding stainless steel), which was a 15 percent decrease from $852 million in 2024. The United States has no significant domestic chromite production and is therefore heavily import dependent. The United States sources about 79 percent of its chrome (all forms) imports from ferrochromium imports, mainly from South Africa, Kazakhstan, Canada and Finland. In 2025, recycled chromium (contained in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts) accounted for 21 percent of apparent consumption. Reserves of chromite deposits World resources are greater than 12 Gt of shipping-grade chromite, sufficient to meet conceivable demand for centuries. World chromium resources are heavily geographically concentrated (95 percent) in Kazakhstan and southern Africa. Chromium resources in the United States are mostly in the Stillwater Complex in Montana. Globally, South Africa and Kazakhstan possess the largest chromite resources. Marketing, price, economics, transportation The global ferrochrome market faced significant pressure, primarily driven by decarbonization, fluctuating power costs and raw-material supply constraints, prompting producers to prioritize energy-efficient smelting technologies. Numerous ferrochrome smelting facilities worldwide implemented process optimization and energy-efficiency upgrades, such as automated furnace control, preheating rotary kilns/burden and waste-heat recovery systems, to reduce the power consumption per tonne of ferrochrome produced. South Africa emerged as a key focus area for these upgrades, with more than 18 smelters adopting preheating rotary kilns and waste-heat recovery systems to offset rising power tariffs, improve thermal efficiency and enhance operational resilience amid tightening environmental and cost constraints. Industry news and challenges New innovations are emerging globally in the ferrochrome industry, improving efficiency and sustainability across the value chain. It was reported that more than 20 pilot projects globally tested advanced plasma and next-generation electric furnace technologies, delivering around 12 percent efficiency gains through lower carbon emissions, improved chromite recovery and reduced power intensity, with early adoption reported in Finland and South Korea. Chrome ore processing plant residue is being put through enhanced beneficiation processes globally. Producers in India, South Africa and Zimbabwe scaled up spiral concentrators, flotation circuits and dense media separation to upgrade low-grade ores and legacy wastes, enabling higher output without new mining, extending resource life and materially reducing environmental footprint. Depletion of high-grade reserves is bound to create a serious problem for the future of the chromite industry. Ferrochrome production is an energy-intensive process. There is a need to investigate alternative energy sources, reductants and other avenues for sustainability. Further, a consistent supply of chrome ore (at the right price), a steady power supply, reductants such as ultra-low-phosphorus and low-phosphorus met coke and favorable market conditions are needed. Novel agglomeration processes such as composite briquettes (stiff vacuum extruded briquettes) for utilization of ore fines, sludges, coke fines and other materials, need to be implemented. Further innovations are needed in process technology, process control, plant simulations and equipment design, and the development of novel ways for effective utilization of wastes such as slag or sludge generated from ferrochrome plants. Uses and new applications Noble ferroalloys are one of the vital inputs required for producing special types of steel and alloys. The total capacity of noble ferroalloys was 50 kt/a, and they primarily include ferromolybdenum, ferro vanadium, ferrotungsten, ferrotitanium, ferro silico-magnesium, ferroaluminum and ferroboron. Mishra Dhatu Nigam, a Government of India undertaking, with a capacity of 2,729 t/a produced different types of super alloys: chiefly, cobalt, molybdenum, titanium and tungsten-based super alloys and products. Outokumpu developed an eco-label-certified ferrochrome product, reducing energy consumption by 28 percent using circular feedstock and hydroelectric smelting. Jilin Ferro Alloys created nano-precipitate-enhanced ferrochrome for precision castings in turbine components. Research and development also focused on microalloyed variants. Shanxi Jiang County Minmetal and Chinese research institutes produced boron-enhanced ferrochrome for wear-resistant rails. Ehui Group developed silicon-enhanced ferrochrome to minimize decarburization during vacuum arc remelting for superalloys. Environmental product innovation is also advanced. More than 190 kt of “green ferrochrome” were certified in 2024, using 100 percent renewable electricity and recycled chromium feed. Trends and outlook Global chromite ore mine production was estimated to have increased by 3 percent in 2025 compared with production in 2024. China was the leading ferrochromium and stainless-steel-producing country and the leading chromium-consuming country. Supply remains highly concentrated, particularly in South Africa, which dominates chromite resources but faces significant operational challenges such as rising electricity costs, deep mining expenses and infrastructure constraints. Challenges related to shifting market demands, particularly in China, combined with deep-level mining and labor costs and an unreliable supply of electricity could affect production in South Africa. Investment, major expansions and new mines may increase the production of chromite ore in Brazil, Kazakhstan and Zimbabwe. Several global ferrochrome producers announced capacity upgrades, product differentiation and sustainability-driven initiatives through 2024 to 2025. Potential export controls and tariffs on chromite ore from South Africa may also affect ferrochromium production in China. There are other imminent issues — such as consistent supply of chrome ore at the right cost, steady supply of power and other input materials like low-phosphorus metallurgical coke, and favorable market conditions — that need redressal in respect of the continuous exploitation of chromite. Environment, regulatory and reclamation issues Environmental regulations influenced market shifts as producers were pressured to improve emissions control. Major ferroalloy plants installed off-gas filtration and slag management systems in 2024, Kazakhstan and Finland implemented chromium dust recovery units, reducing emissions by 22 percent. The adoption of chromite fines recycling grew, particularly in India and South Africa. Market consolidation was also a visible trend. In 2024, more than nine significant merger-and-acquisition deals took place, including expansions in Turkey and Oman. These moves contributed to better control over production capacity and regional pricing. Adherence to stringent pollution control norms, innovations in process technology and plant equipment design would become inevitable for the future of the industry. References U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2026.International Chromium Development Association (2025).International Energy Agency. (2024). Industrial electrification and low carbon process heat. IEA. https://www.iea.org/reports/industrial-electrificationU.S. Geological Survey. (2025). Mineral commodity summaries 2025: Chromium. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-centerFastmarkets. (2024). Chrome and ferrochrome market outlook. Fastmarkets MB. https://www.fastmarkets.comWorld Steel Association. (2024). Climate action and technology pathways for steel and alloy production. https://worldsteel.orgChrome ore beneficiation challenges & opportunities – A Review; Minerals Engineering, Y. Rama Murthy, Sunil Kumar Tripathy, C. Raghu Kumar, Volume 24, Issue 5, April 2011, pp 375-380.Characterisation and separation studies of Indian chromite beneficiation plant tailing; International Journal of Mineral Processing; Volume 122, 10 July 2013, pp 47-53; Sunil Kumar Tripathy, Y. Rama Murthy, Veerendra Singh.Chapter 3 Chromite ore beneficiation: prospects and challenges; Mineral Processing, Beneficiation Operations and Process Optimization Through Modeling, 2023, pp 79-116.www.marketgrowthreports.com/market-reports/ferrochrome-market-105904.Merafe Resources Limited. (2024). Integrated annual report 2024: Directors’ report. https://www.meraferesources.co.za/reports/ir-2024/directors-report-iar.phpMiningMX. (2025, March 10). Merafe may idle up to two thirds of ferrochrome production. https://www.miningmx.com/news/ferrous-metals/60388-merafe-may-idle-up-to-two-thirds-of-ferrochrome-production/Glencore. (2025, November 18). Statement regarding the status of ferrochrome smelter operations in South Africa. https://www.glencore.com/south-africa/news/glencore-merafe-statement-regarding-the-status-of-its-ferrochrome-smelter-operations-and-s189-process-in-south-africa.Swadhinata Raswara. (2024, July). First in ferrochrome plants in India: Tata Steel conducts successful trial of biomass usage. https://www.swadhinataraswara.com/first-in-ferrochrome-plants-in-india-tata-steel-conducts-successful-trial-of-biomass-usage/Asian Metal. (2024). Chrome industry annual report 2024. https://www.asianmetal.com/news/2170976/Chrome-Industry-Annual-Report-2024Eurasian Resources Group. (2025, April 30). ERG to build a landmark 80 MW ferroalloy gas utilisation power plant in Kazakhstan (Press release). https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/eurasian-resources-group-build-landmark-130600854.htmlThe Astana Times. (2025, May 2). Kazakhstan to build ferroalloy gas utilisation facility. https://astanatimes.com/2025/05/kazakhstan-to-build-ferroalloy-gas-utilization-facility/Wisconsin Industry Journal. (2025, April 30). Eurasian Resources Group to build a landmark 80 MW ferroalloy gas utilisation plant.Outokumpu Oyj. (2024). https://www.outokumpu.com/en/news/2024/outokumpu-supports-its-customers’-green-transition-with-verified-environmental-data-–-new-stainless-steel-environmental-product-declarations-published-with-lower-carbon-footprint-3514141Global Info Research. (2025). Global ferrochrome market 2025: https://www.globalinforesearch.com/reports/2407206/ferrochromeIndian Minerals Yearbook 2024; Government of India Ministry of Mines Indian Bureau of Mines.Allied Market Research. (2026). Ferrochrome market analysis. https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/ferrochrome-market Construction Aggregates by Venkata Aneesh Kona, Vulcan Materials Company The U.S. construction aggregates industry, the nation’s largest mining sector, remains vital for urban and highway infrastructure. The industry provides the essential coarse- to medium-grained materials — limestone and granite — required for high-specification concrete and asphalt. Alternative lower-grade materials like shell and slate typically fall short of these strict technical requirements. Production/consumption In 2025, U.S. crushed stone production remained stable at an estimated 1.5 Gt, valued at approximately $27 billion (Fig. 1). This output was supported by 3,500 quarries and 180 distribution yards, with 72 percent of the material used in road maintenance and highway projects. Sand and gravel production reached 870 Mt valued at $12.6 billion. Leading production states included Texas, Pennsylvania and Florida for crushed stone, and Texas, California, Arizona and Minnesota for sand and gravel. Demand was primarily driven by the nonbuilding sector, while residential demand remained constrained by elevated mortgage rates. Although sand and gravel production declined 1.2 percent overall, major applications continued in portland cement concrete (42 percent) and road base (20 percent). Despite a challenging start to the year, a second-half volume rebound and disciplined pricing preserved profitability, creating momentum expected to carry into 2026. Recycling and substitutes The use of recycled asphalt (RAP) and portland cement concrete (PCC) is growing but remains a small fraction of the total supply. While valuable for base materials, these often lack the purity required for high-specification Department of Transportation (DOT) surface mixes. Regulatory landscape and testing Compliance with strict material specifications remains vital. Quality is monitored through standards like the Los Angeles Abrasion test to ensure durability for high-performance infrastructure. Federal efforts to expedite permitting are underway, though local zoning remains a bottleneck. Health and safety Industry fatalities were unfortunately up 27 percent in 2025, with 33 miners killed in mining accidents. The U.S. Mine Safety & Health Administration (MSHA) actively enforces safety regulations and awards more than $10.5 million in grants to support mine safety and health training across the nation. The industry continues to prepare for stricter standards, though the 2024 MSHA silica rule is currently in a holding pattern as MSHA and industry stakeholders reevaluate specific implementation requirements. Despite this regulatory pause, many operations maintain internal benchmarks that are closely aligned with the proposed respirable crystalline silica limit of 50 µg/m3 to ensure long-term readiness. Prices, economics and transportation The industry supports more than725,000 jobs with a $170 billion national sales impact (Fig. 2). Logistics remains a primary cost driver — 85 percent of aggregates are moved by truck within a 40-mile radius of the mine location. Increasing urban congestion is driving a shift toward rail and water-borne distribution for long-distance hauls. Innovation and sustainability 2025 marked an acceleration in AI-driven data science and autonomous haulage systems to optimize fleet tracking. Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) autonomy is expected to extend beyond haul trucks to include excavators, loaders and dozers. Sustainability efforts focus on water recycling and energy efficiency in power-dense industrial applications. Challenges The industry faces headwinds and public opposition to new site permitting. Construction material prices, including steel and concrete, rose at the fastest rate since the post-COVID-19 spike, potentially shrinking profit margins due to tariffs. Mergers and acquisitions In 2025, merger-and-acquisition activity shifted toward selective, high-quality asset acquisition and vertical integration into downstream hot mix asphalt (HMA) and ready-mixed concrete (RMC). Significant consolidations included a merger between Summit Materials and Quikrete, alongside a major asset exchange where Martin Marietta acquired Quikrete’s aggregates operations in Virginia, Missouri and Kansas. CRH expanded its northeast and California footprint, while Granite bolstered reserves through the acquisition of Warren Paving and Papich Construction. Other key moves included Holcim’s rebranding of its North American business as Amrize following a June 2025 spin-off. This trend is primarily driven by permitting challenges, which necessitate securing long-term reserves through acquisition over new development. Looking ahead The 2026 outlook is supported by the peak implementation of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA). A critical milestone is the expiration of the current highway bill in September 2026, which requires legislative action for long-term funding stability. The industry is increasingly focused on vertical integration and “power-dense” assets to meet the demands of data-center and industrial electrification projects. Conclusion The aggregates industry is evolving from a focus on pure scale to a focus on asset quality and downstream integration. Future success relies on navigating local regulatory hurdles while leveraging new technologies to meet the needs of a modernizing electrical and physical infrastructure. Diatomite by R.D. Crangle Jr., National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Diatomite is a chalk-like, soft, friable, very-fine-grained, siliceous sedimentary rock. Typically light in color (white if pure, commonly buff to gray in situ), diatomite is also very finely porous, very low in density and essentially chemically inert. Diatomaceous earth (D.E.) is a common alternate name, but the term is more appropriate for unconsolidated or less lithified rock of the same origin. Diatomite deposits accumulate in oceans or fresh waters from the cell walls of diatoms, composed of amorphous hydrous silica. Diatoms are microscopic, single-celled organisms, often appearing as colonial aquatic plants (algae). Diatom cells contain an elaborate internal siliceous skeleton. More than 10,000 living diatom species have been identified, in addition to another 10,000 known diatom fossil forms. Production Diatomite deposits are usually mined as openpit operations. If necessary, the mined crude ore is dried and crushed. Dried diatomite is collected in cyclones and fed through air separators to remove coarse material and impurities. Calcination and flux calcination are used to thermally volatize organic material and oxidize iron. Calcination also is used to increase diatomite hardness, specific gravity and refractive index. The fusing of small diatomite particles into clusters can also be accomplished through calcination, which results in increased pore size and volume. Diatomite products are sold as various grades of calcined powders.The United States continues to be the world’s leading producer and consumer of diatomite. Production of diatomite in the United States during 2025 was estimated to be 720 kt (790,000 st), a decrease from 721 kt (795,000 st) in 2024. Six companies operated 13 mines and nine processing facilities in California, Nevada, Oregon and Washington. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. diatomite exports in 2025 were 53.2 kt (58,600 st). Imports were lower at 13.6 kt (15,000 st). Total world production of diatomite was an estimated 2.5 Mt (2.8 million st) in 2025. Following the United States in diatomite production, other significant producers in 2025 were Denmark (380 kt or 420,000 st), France (250 kt or 280,000 st), Argentina (190 kt or 210,000 st), Turkey (150 kt or 170,000 st) and China (140 kt or 150,000 st). Smaller quantities of diatomite were mined in 22 additional countries. World resources of crude diatomite appear to be adequate for the foreseeable future. However, increased transportation costs may encourage development of sources of material closer to markets. Prices The unit value of diatomite varied widely by end-use in 2025. The estimated annual average unit value of diatomite in 2025 was $580/t ($530/st), an increase from the 2024 average unit value of $575/t ($520/st). Diatomite used as an absorbent and as a lightweight aggregate in cement was priced at approximately $10/t ($9/st), but specialty grade diatomite, used in art supplies, biomedical applications or cosmetics, could be priced above $1,000/t ($900/st). Consumption Domestic apparent consumption in 2025 was estimated to be 680 kt (750,000 st). The internal structure and inert chemical composition of diatomite make it an excellent raw material for filtration, absorbent and filler applications. Filtration, especially the purification of beer, liquors and wine and the cleansing of greases and oils, continued to be the largest end-use for diatomite. Other applications included the removal of microbial contaminants, such as bacteria, protozoa and viruses, from public water systems. The use of diatomite as a filler, which serves to displace higher-cost raw materials, and in pharmaceutical applications, including the filtration of human blood plasma, continues to increase, as has its use as an insecticide base and in cement and concrete pozzolan. In 2025, approximately 60 percent of diatomite was utilized in filter aids. The remaining 40 percent was used in abrasives, absorbents, cement, fillers, insulation, lightweight aggregates and other unspecified uses. A small amount, less than 1 percent, was used for specialized biomedical and pharmaceutical purposes. Substitutes Many materials can be substituted for diatomite, especially for lightweight aggregate purposes, such as expanded perlite and silica sand. Synthetic filters, including ceramic, polymeric or carbon membrane, and cellulose fibers offer competition as filter media. Alternate filler materials include clay, ground limestone, mica, perlite, silica sand, talc and vermiculite. For thermal insulation purposes, materials such as specialty brick, various clays, mineral wool, expanded perlite and exfoliated vermiculite may be used. Many alternatives exist for diatomite as a pozzolan, but its use as an ingredient of portland cement has increased in recent years. The encroachment of natural and synthetic substitute materials into diatomite markets has not been significant. Outlook Adequate supplies of diatomite are likely to remain available for the foreseeable future. The economic stability of the diatomite industry was largely owing to its use as a filtration medium, where demand remains strong and is not sensitive to economic cycles. This is particularly so in the filtration of spirits, as well as human blood plasma and other biotechnical applications. Likewise, the substitution for diatomite by more advanced filtration products, including carbon membranes, ceramics and polymers, was not a concern in 2025. The high costs associated with these alternatives and a cultural preference toward the use of diatomite in the brewing and wine industries indicate a strong likelihood for the continued widespread use of diatomite in filtration. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Diatomite: U.S. Geological Survey, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-diatomite.pdf. Frac Sand by Jack Sackrider, P.G., Westward Environmental Inc. U.S. frac sand demand reached another record level in 2025, marking the fourth consecutive year of increasing annual volumes within the domestic market. Total U.S. volumes pumped are estimated at approximately 126 Mt. The Permian Basin remained the leading demand center in the United States. Frac sand is a high-purity silica sand engineered to meet specific physical and chemical criteria. During hydraulic fracturing, a slurry of sand, water and additives is injected into a well at high pressure, creating microfractures in the formation. The sand grains lodge within these fractures, “propping” them open and enabling the flow of oil and natural gas. A range of particle sizes is used, commonly referred to as mesh sizes based on ASTM International sieve standards. Typical products include 20/40, 30/50, 40/70 and 100 mesh (also called 70/140). These designations define the particle size distribution, where grains pass through the first sieve but are retained on the second. The American Petroleum Institute (API) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) define proppant testing standards in API RP 19C/ISO 13503-2. Beyond size, ideal frac sand exhibits several key characteristics: High silica content — Reflects mineralogical maturity and minimal impurities. Uniform grain size — Supports optimized permeability and mechanical performance. High sphericity and roundness — Enhances strength and fluid flow efficiency. High crush resistance — Typically withstands 2,000 to 10,000 psi; rated by k-value based on fines generation (≤10 percent by weight). Low solubility — Minimizes dissolution under acid exposure. Low turbidity — Indicates minimal clays and fine contaminants. While these standards define ideal proppant quality, operators have increasingly accepted lower-spec materials in recent years to reduce well completion costs. Uses Although frac sand has limited direct substitutes in hydraulic fracturing, deposits capable of producing frac sand often yield materials suitable for glassmaking, foundry applications, recreation and construction. These deposits may also support production of high-purity ground silica used in coatings, epoxies and ceramics. Production U.S. frac sand demand achieved another record high in 2025, marking the fourth consecutive year of record-high annual volume, according to estimates from energy intelligence firm Lium Research. Lium estimates that U.S. frac sand tons pumped increased to 126 Mt in 2025. The Permian Basin, which is supplied mostly by local sand mines, led all markets with 72 Mt of frac sand consumed, according to Lium. According to Baker Hughes data, the North American drilling rig count generally decreased through 2025, peaking at 604 rigs in March, reaching an annual low of 541 in August before increasing to end the year at 558, down 31 rigs from the end of last year (Fig. 1). The total rig count remains more than 200 rigs below the early 2023 peak of 775 active rigs. Rig count is traditionally viewed as a proxy for industry activity — and by extension, frac sand demand — which held true in 2025 as both metrics increased. In contrast, West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude prices were more volatile, declining from$72/bbl in January to $58/bbl in April, recovering to $70/bbl in July and ending the year at $57/bbl. Pricing Although the demand numbers have been strong, the market was well supplied in 2025. This caused pricing pressure in several key markets. For example, Lium assessed 2025 minegate (f.o.b. mine) frac sand spot prices in the Permian Basin falling below $20/t on average for the year 2025. Lium’s pricing data show about a 20 percent year-over-year pricing drop at West Texas plants. In other frac sand production zones, such as the Northern White Sand corridor and the Eagle Ford Shale Basin in South Texas, frac sand producers enjoyed more price stability during 2025, according to Lium. Trends and outlook Market forecasts remain positive. IMARC Group projects a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.1 percent from 2025 to 2033, with the global market expected to reach approximately $11.14 billion by 2033. While North America — especially the United States — dominates global frac sand demand, international markets are growing more gradually, with Asia-Pacific emerging as a key expansion area due to rising energy demand and increased shale development. In contrast, Europe remains a smaller, more stable market, with limited fracking activity and demand driven primarily by industrial applications rather than oil and gas, according to IMARC. References Baker Hughes: North American Rig Count, https://rigcount.bakerhughes.com/na-rig-countGlobal Frac Sand Market Statistics, Outlook and Regional Analysis 2025-2033, https://www.imarcgroup.com/frac-sand-market-statisticsLium Research: Insights from Mr. Joseph Triepke, https://lium.com/USGS: Frac Sand in the United States—A Geological and Industry Overview, https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2015/1107/US Silica: SIL-CO-SIL, https://www.ussilica.com/products/sil-co-silrwww.macrotrends.net: WTI Crude Oil Prices, https://www.macrotrends.net/1369/crude-oil-price-history-chart Gemstones by Donald W. Olson, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production The value of natural gemstones produced from U.S. deposits during 2025 was estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to be $9.4 million, compared with $9.25 million in 2024. U.S. natural gemstone production included agate, beryl, coral, diamond, garnet, jade, jasper, opal, pearl, quartz, sapphire, shell, topaz, tourmaline, turquoise and many other gem materials. More than 60 varieties of gemstones have been produced from U.S. mines, but commercial mining of gemstones has never been extensively undertaken in the United States. Most U.S. gemstone production has been from relatively small mining operations, or production has been as a byproduct of the mining of other mineral commodities. In the United States, much of the current gemstone mining is conducted by collectors, gem clubs and hobbyists, rather than commercial organizations. The U.S. commercial gemstone industry consists of individuals and companies that mine gemstones or harvest shell and pearl, firms that manufacture synthetic gemstones, and individuals and companies that cut natural and synthetic gemstones. The U.S. gemstone industry is focused on the production of colored gemstones and the cutting of large diamonds. During 2025, each of the 50 states was estimated to produce at least $1,830 worth of gem materials. Ten states accounted for 89 percent of the total value, as voluntarily reported to the USGS by survey respondents. These states (listed in alphabetical order) were Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine, Montana, Nevada, Oregon and Utah. Some states are known for the production of a single gem material, such as Tennessee for freshwater pearls. Other states, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada and North Carolina, are known for producing a variety of gemstones. California and North Carolina have identified deposits of three of the most popular precious gemstones: emerald, ruby and sapphire. Both states reported production of emerald, ruby and sapphire during 2025, and diamonds have been found in both states in the past. The USGS estimated the value of U.S. synthetic or manufactured gemstone production was $37 million in 2025, a 35 percent decrease from that of 2024. This decrease was owing to declining prices of synthetic diamonds and to the closure of some U.S. synthetic diamond producers. Reported output of synthetic gemstones was from five companies in North Carolina, California, Oregon, South Carolina and Arizona, in descending order of production value. Production included the manufacture of diamond, moissanite and turquoise. Global output of rough natural diamond for 2025 was expected to be between 98 million and 99 million carats when all producing companies and countries have reported, the lowest production of the past three decades. The production decline was due to weak demand for gem-grade diamond, competition from lower-priced synthetic gem-grade diamond, the sanctions against Russian diamond production, the depletion of existing mines, and the intentional production cuts by leading diamond mining companies to support prices and profits. Consumption and uses Although the United States accounts for only a small portion of the total global gemstone production, it is one of the world’s leading gemstone markets. U.S. gemstone markets were estimated to account for more than 35 percent of world gemstone consumption in 2025. U.S. apparent consumption of unset gemstones decreased by 47 percent from the previous year during 2025 to an estimated $9.3 billion. About 83 percent of the 2025 U.S. gemstone apparent consumption was unset gem-quality diamond and the remaining 17 percent was unset nondiamond gemstones. The major uses for gemstones in the United States were in jewelry, for carvings, and in gem and mineral collections. Prices Gemstone prices are governed by many factors and qualitative characteristics, including beauty, clarity, demand, durability, freedom from defects, perfection of cutting, and rarity.Colored gemstone prices are generally influenced by market supply-and-demand considerations, and diamond prices are supported by producer controls on the quantity and quality of supply. Diamond pricing, in particular, is complex. Values can vary significantly depending on time, place and the subjective evaluations of buyers and sellers. Imports and exports Trade data in this report are from the U.S. Census Bureau. During 2025, total U.S. gemstone trade with all countries and localities was about $9.33 billion ($7.01 billion in imports plus $2.32 billion in domestic exports). In 2025, U.S. domestic exports of diamond were valued at $1.37 billion. U.S. domestic exports of gemstones other than diamond were valued at $950 million. U.S. imports of diamond, both cut but not set and rough or uncut, were valued at $5.50 billion, and U.S. imports of gemstones other than diamond were valued at $1.51 billion. The United States is a significant international diamond transit center as well as one of the world’s leading gem diamond markets. The large volume of reexports or foreign exports shipped to other centers is one measure of the significance of the United States in the worldwide diamond supply network. In a four-year (2021-2024) average of U.S. import sources by value, the leading gemstone sources were India, 46 percent; Israel, 27 percent; Belgium, 11 percent; and South Africa, 4 percent. Diamond imports accounted for an average of 79 percent of the total value of gemstone imports during 2025. During 2025, sanctions that had previously been put in place against Russia by the U.S. government, the Group of Seven (representatives of the seven leading industrial nations) and the European Union remained in force. These sanctions banned the import of rough and finished gem-grade diamonds from the Russian state-owned diamond-mining company, with the goal of limiting Russia’s ability to fund its conflict with Ukraine using diamond revenues. In 2024, sanctions previously put in place were expanded by the United States and the European Union to include Russian-origin gem-grade diamonds 0.5 carats and larger, processed in third countries, requiring traceability and country of mining data for imports. Outlook During 2025, U.S. jewelers continued to expand their online business and sales from their websites. Internet sales of diamonds, other gemstones and jewelry are expected to continue at a high level and to increase in acceptance, along with other forms of e-commerce that emerge to serve the diamond and gemstone industries, partially replacing brick-and-mortar store sales.Online auctions continued, gaining a higher share of rough diamond sales. The major U.S. gemstone trade shows remain an important part of the distribution of gemstones. More synthetic gemstones, simulants and treated gemstones are likely to enter the marketplace and necessitate more transparency in the industry trade standards to maintain customer confidence. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Gemstones: U.S. Geological Survey, pp 86–87, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf.Commersant, Inc., 2026, Global diamond production is forecast to fall below 100 million carats in 2025–2026, marking the lowest level in over 30 years: Tbilisi, Georgia, Commersant, Inc. press release, January 9. Accessed March 17, 2026, athttps://commersant.ge/en/news/worl/global-diamond-production-is-forecast-to-fall-below-100-million-carats-in-2025-2026#:~:text=commersant/%20%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98-,Global%20diamond%20production%20is%20forecast%20to%20fall%20below%20100%20million,the%20world's%20leading%20diamond%20producers.U.S. Census Bureau.U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2022, The United States sanctions major Russian state-owned enterprises, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of the Treasury press release, April 7. Accessed March 17, 2026, at https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0707.Thomson Reuters, 2024, EU, G7 indirect Russian diamond ban comes into effect: Thomson Reuters, March 1. Accessed March 17, 2026, athttps://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-g7-indirect-russian-diamond-ban-comes-into-effect-2024-03-01/.American Gem Trade Association, 2024, U.S. Government permits grandfathered Russian-origin diamonds & jewelry, Dallas, TX, American Gem Trade Association press release, August 28. Accessed March 17, 2026, athttps://agta.org/u-s-government-permits-grandfathered-russian-origin-diamonds-jewelry/#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20had%20already%20banned,jewelry%20businesses%2C%E2%80%9D%20adds%20Ford. Gypsum by R.D. Crangle Jr., National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production The United States was the world’s leading producer and consumer of mined crude gypsum. Forty-seven companies mined gypsum in the United States in 15 states. Production of crude gypsum in the United States during 2025 was 20.9 Mt (23.0 million st), less than the 20.8 Mt (22.9 million st) produced in 2024. The average price of mined crude gypsum was $13/t ($11.80/st). Sales of synthetic gypsum, most of which was generated as a flue-gas desulfurization product from coal-fired electric power plants, in 2025 were estimated to be 17 Mt (18.7 million st) and priced at approximately $10/t ($9.10/st). Crude gypsum exports from the United States totaled 38.6 kt (42,500 st). Imports were 6.65 Mt (7.33 million st). World production of gypsum in 2025 was estimated to be 160 Mt (176 million st), less than the 162 Mt (179 million st) produced in 2024. The United States was the largest producer of natural gypsum in 2025 with 20.9 Mt (23 million st), followed by Iran with an estimated 16 Mt (18 million st), Oman with 14 Mt (15 million st), China with 12 Mt (13 million st), Spain with 11 Mt (12 million st), Turkey with 10 Mt (11 million st) and Thailand with 8.7 Mt (9.6 million st). Crude gypsum production was reported or estimated in 78 countries in 2025. Consumption Apparent domestic consumption of crude gypsum was 45.9 Mt (50.6 million st) in 2025, more than the 45.8 Mt (50.5 million st) consumed in 2024. Gypsum-derived wallboard products totaled 2.36 billion m2 (25.4 billion sq ft) in 2025. Synthetic gypsum accounted for 33 percent of total domestic gypsum consumption in 2025. Demand for gypsum depends principally on the performance of the building construction industry, particularly in the United States, where about 60 percent of consumed gypsum is used for building plasters, the manufacture of portland cement, and wallboard products. Gypsum has no practical substitute in the manufacturing of portland cement. Approximately 700 kt (770,000 st) of gypsum scrap that was generated by wallboard manufacturing, wallboard installation and building demolition was recycled. That quantity included an estimated 600 kt (660,000 st) of preconsumer wallboard waste recycled by wallboard manufacturers coupled with an estimated 100 kt (110,000 st) of post-consumer wallboard. Recycled gypsum was used primarily for agricultural purposes and as feedstock for the manufacture of new wallboard. Other markets for recycled gypsum include athletic field marking, cement production, as a stucco additive, grease absorption, sludge drying and water treatment. Trade As a low-value, high-tonnage bulk commodity normally mined in openpit operations from deposits widely distributed throughout the world, gypsum tends to be consumed within the many countries where it is produced rather than exported. Less than 20 percent of the world’s crude gypsum production was estimated to enter international trade. Only a few countries, such as Canada, Mexico, Spain and Thailand, were major crude gypsum exporters — of these, Canada and Mexico were significant exporters because of their large deposits in proximity to gypsum-consuming facilities in the United States. World resources World gypsum reserves are large in major producing countries, but data for many countries are not available. Domestic gypsum resources are adequate but unevenly distributed. Synthetic gypsum, most of which is byproduct from coal-fired power plants, coupled with substantial imports from Canada, augment U.S. domestic crude gypsum supplies for wallboard manufacturing in the United States, particularly in the eastern and southern coastal regions. Imports from Mexico supplement domestic supplies for wallboard manufacturing along portions of the U.S. West Coast. Large gypsum deposits occur in the Great Lakes region, the midcontinent region and several western states. Foreign resources are large and widely distributed. Outlook The use of synthetic gypsum may continue to grow, albeit at a slower pace. As power companies convert coal-fired electric power plants to natural gas to take advantage of an abundant and inexpensive supply of shale gas, the production of synthetic gypsum could further decline because fewer coal-fired power plants would be operating. Nevertheless, the use of synthetic gypsum by U.S. wallboard manufacturers is likely to continue. Similarly, should the economy continue to expand, and if residential and commercial construction increases, gypsum consumption is also expected to increase in the near future. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Gypsum: U.S. Geological Survey, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-gypsum.pdf. Industrial Diamond by Donald W. Olson, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production During 2025, world production of natural and synthetic industrial diamond was estimated to be 15.4 billion carats, most of which was synthetic. Natural diamond resources have been identified in more than 35 countries. Natural industrial diamond was produced in at least 11 countries as a byproduct of mining gem-quality diamond, and an estimated 37.7 million carats were produced in 2025, unchanged from production in the previous year. The leading five natural industrial diamond producing countries, in descending order of quantity produced, were Russia, Congo (Kinshasa), Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa, accounting for 95 percent of global production. Synthetic industrial diamond was produced in at least six countries during 2025. More than 99 percent of the combined natural and synthetic global output was produced, in descending order of production, in China, the United States, Russia, South Africa and Ireland. During 2025, China was the world’s leading producer of synthetic industrial diamond followed by the United States and Russia. In 2025, the two U.S. synthetic producers, one in Pennsylvania and another with facilities in Florida and Ohio, produced an estimated 162 million carats, valued at about $52.4 million. This production was entirely synthetic diamond bort, dust and powder and grit. Also in 2025, at least four U.S. firms manufactured polycrystalline diamond (PCD) from synthetic diamond dust and powder and grit. Data are not available for either domestic PCD producers or domestic chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond producers for quantity or value of annual production. Current trade and consumption quantity data are not available for PCD or for CVD diamond. Consequently, PCD and CVD diamond are not included in the industrial diamond quantitative data reported here. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimated a total of 15 million carats of used industrial diamond, valued at about $660,000, was recycled in the United States during 2025. Of this total, an estimated 75,000 carats were recycled diamond stone with a value of $110,000, and the remainder was diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit. Diamond stone recycling operations have decreased in number and scale owing to the lower price of newly produced synthetic industrial diamonds. Most of this recycled material was recovered from used drill bits, diamond tools and other diamond-containing wastes. Some diamond also was recovered from residues generated in the manufacture of PCD. During the past 40 years, CVD diamond use has grown and has been increasingly accepted by multiple industries as an enhanced material of choice owing to its properties of exceptional strength, hardness, durability, stiffness, high thermal conductivity, chemical inertness and electrical isolation. Use of the CVD process facilitates depositing a layer of diamond with these properties on the surface of a tool. Initially, the CVD process was mostly used for growing thin- and thick-film PCD for cutting tools and dressing applications because of the mechanical properties of diamond. More recent applications that take advantage of CVD diamond’s mechanical properties include wear parts, such as watch gears and chemical-mechanical-polishing pad conditioners. Diamond has tremendous potential for electronics applications because of its high thermal conductivity. It can significantly improve thermal management while remaining highly cost competitive with other materials. CVD diamond is used in microelectronic components, such as high-speed processors, medical devices, wide-bandgap radio frequency devices, power conversion devices and opto-electronic devices (light-emitting diodes, laser diodes) that generate exceptionally high heat densities requiring innovative approaches to thermal management. Diamond coatings are increasingly being used in these applications because the thermal conductivity of diamond is 10 times that of silicon. Boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes for water treatment are attracting significant interest because of diamond’s potential as an environmentally friendly, high-performance electrode material. BDD electrodes have many characteristics that make them ideal for eliminating organic contaminants from water. In the past, diamond has been perceived as an expensive material, but advances in CVD diamond manufacturing, such as the development of microwave carbon plasma technology and the development of higher-throughput hot-filament CVD diamond reactors, have significantly reduced diamond costs and allowed for the use of CVD diamond for an increasing number of applications. In addition to the existing opportunities for synthetic diamond use as gemstones, research and development projects by several companies that use single-crystal CVD diamond materials in high-voltage power switches, lasers, quantum communications and computing, and water treatment and purification have been ongoing. Research also was being done on the use of industrial diamond in medical applications such as bionic eye implants, bioimaging, biomarking, cancer treatments and surgical tools; in dental applications such as cavity treatments; in cosmetic applications such as beauty treatments, facial exfoliation and wrinkle treatments; in glass shaping and window production; in military uses; in sound speakers; in super lasers; and in many other applications. Consumption The United States remained one of the world’s leading consumers of industrial diamond in 2025. Estimated U.S. apparent consumption of natural and synthetic industrial diamond bort, dust and powder, grit and stones was 272 million carats, valued at $49.5 million. Industrial diamond is used for applications such as truing and dressing grinding wheels, production of fine wire, waterjet nozzles for material cutting, direct precision cutting and material processing, material testing, drilling, grinding, polishing and finishing materials. The major consuming sectors of industrial diamond are computer-chip production; construction; drilling for minerals, natural gas and oil; machinery manufacturing; stone cutting and polishing; and transportation (infrastructure and vehicles). Highway building, milling and repair, and stone cutting consumed most of the industrial diamond stone. During 2025, more than 97 percent of the U.S. industrial diamond market used synthetic industrial diamonds because the diamond quality can be controlled, and properties can be customized to fit specific requirements. Prices Both natural and synthetic industrial diamonds had prices with a range of values depending on their crystallinity, purity, shape, size and in the case of synthetic, the absence or presence of metal coatings. During 2025, the average unit value for diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit material produced in the United States was $0.32 per carat. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports of all types of industrial diamond had an average unit value of $0.23 per carat in 2025. These imports were a combination of natural and synthetic diamond stone that had an average unit value of $7.24 per carat and natural and synthetic diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit that had an average unit value of $0.22 per carat. Foreign trade Trade data in this report are from the U.S. Census Bureau. During 2025, U.S. imports of industrial-quality diamond stones (natural and synthetic) were 250,000 carats valued at $1.81 million from 10 countries or localities. The leading import sources were India with 48 percent, South Africa (36 percent) and Botswana (9 percent). U.S. imports of industrial-quality diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit (natural and synthetic) were 170 million carats valued at $37.2 million from 30 countries or localities. The leading import sources were China (65 percent), Japan (12 percent), Ireland (6 percent) and Israel (5 percent). During 2025, U.S. domestic exports of industrial diamond dust, grit, powder and stone (natural and synthetic) were about 73.5 million carats valued at $42.6 million to 35 countries or localities. Outlook China is expected to remain the world’s leading producer of synthetic industrial diamond. The United States is expected to continue to be one of the world’s leading consumers of industrial diamond and likely will remain a significant producer and exporter of synthetic industrial diamond as well. Demand for synthetic diamond grit and powder is expected to remain greater than that for natural diamond material. Constant-dollar prices of synthetic diamond products, including CVD diamond films, are expected to continue to decline as production technology becomes more cost effective; the decline is even more likely if competition from low-cost producers in China continues to increase. Several of the world’s largest diamond mines have matured, passed their peak production levels, and closed in recent years causing a decline in global output during the last two years, and additional mines are approaching the ends of their mine lives. As these mines are depleted, global natural diamond production is expected to continue declining further in quantity, and the global supply of rough natural diamond is forecasted to steadily decrease. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Diamond (Industrial): U.S. Geological Survey, p. 74–75, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf. Industrial Garnet by Donald W. Olson, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Garnet’s angular fractures, high hardness, specific gravity, chemical inertness and nontoxicity make industrial-grade garnet ideal for many applications. In addition to those properties, garnet is free of crystalline silica and can be recycled. Garnet is the name given to a group of complex silicate minerals, all with an isometric crystal structure and similar physical properties and chemical compositions. Higher-quality garnet is used as a loose-grain abrasive because of its hardness, while lower-quality garnet is used as a filtration medium as it is relatively inert and resists chemical degradation. Garnet is also being used as a proppant in oil and natural-gas well drilling. It may be mixed with other proppants when high temperatures are encountered or in very deep formations. Production In 2025, industrial garnet was mined by three firms — one in Montana and two in New York. In 2025, U.S. production of crude garnet concentrate for industrial use (industrial garnet) was estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to be 77 kt valued at $17 million, a 4 percent increase in quantity and a 6 percent increase in value compared with 2024 production. Most of the industrial garnet mined in the United States was almandite (iron aluminum silicate). Some andradite (calcium iron silicate) also was mined domestically for industrial uses. Refined garnet material sold or used was estimated to be 150 kt valued at $50 million, compared with 146 kt valued at $49.3 million in 2024. Total world industrial garnet production was estimated to be 730 kt, compared with 734 kt in 2024. Australia (350 kt) and China (280 kt) were the leading producers in 2025. The United States produced about 11 percent of the industrial garnet mined worldwide. Recycling Garnet can be recycled multiple times without significant degradation of its quality. Most recycled garnet is from blast cleaning and water-jet-assisted cutting operations. Garnet was recycled in Oregon and Pennsylvania, at plants with capacities of 16 kt/a and 25 kt/a, respectively. Consumption In 2025, apparent consumption of industrial garnet in the United States was estimated to be 270 kt, accounting for 30 percent of global garnet production. U.S. apparent consumption increased by 31 percent compared with 2024. Major applications for industrial garnet in the United States, in descending order by estimated market share, include abrasive blasting, water-filtration media, water-jet-assisted cutting and other end-uses, such as in abrasive powders, hydrocarbon reservoir-fracturing proppants, nonslip coatings and sandpaper. Domestically, the industrial sectors that consume industrial garnet include aircraft and motor-vehicle manufacturers, ceramics and glass producers, electronic component manufacturers, natural-gas and petroleum industry, shipbuilders, textile stone washing, water filtration plants and wood-furniture-finishing operations. Prices Prices for industrial garnet cover a wide range depending upon application, quality, quantity purchased, source and type. During 2025, estimated domestic values of industrial garnet crude concentrate averaged $220/t. The average unit values of refined garnet sold in the United States during the year averaged $340/t. The average customs unit value of U.S. garnet imports in 2025 was $170/t, a decrease of 31 percent compared with the average unit value in 2024. Foreign trade The industrial garnet market is competitive. Lower-priced foreign imports began displacing U.S. production in domestic markets during the 1990s. Since then, the United States has become increasingly dependent upon foreign sources of industrial garnet.According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau that was adjusted by the USGS, imports for consumption in 2025 were received from 14 countries or localities and totaled 161 kt, a 4 percent increase from 2024. In 2025, South Africa (63 percent), China (16 percent), Australia (13 percent) and India (6 percent) were the leading suppliers of imports to the United States. U.S. exports were shipped to 52 countries or localities and totaled 22.6 kt, an increase of 3 percent compared with 2024. U.S. exports of industrial garnet were shipped to Canada (56 percent), Mexico (18 percent) and the Netherlands (5 percent), with the remainder going to several other countries and localities. Outlook Industrial garnet consumption will continue growing as an abrasive blasting medium, replacing silica sand for use in blast cleaning and surface finishing by the aircraft and shipbuilding industries and by the oil and gas industry. Garnet use will also continue growing as a water-filtration medium with the growing number of water treatment plants worldwide. Higher production costs and tighter profit margins will continue to affect the industry. To increase profitability and remain competitive with imported material, production may be restricted to high-grade industrial garnet ores or those deposits that contain other salable mineral products, such as kyanite, marble, mica minerals, sillimanite, staurolite, wollastonite or metallic ores. Worldwide industrial garnet production is expected to gradually increase, with the highest growth in consumption in abrasive blasting and water-jet-assisted cutting. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 — Garnet (Industrial): U.S. Geological Survey, p. 84–85, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-garnet.pdf.U.S. Census Bureau and Trade Mining LLC; data adjusted for the garnet portion by the U.S. Geological Survey. Industrial Sand and Gravel by Robert C. Goodin, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Industrial sand and gravel, often called silica, silica sand or quartz sand, includes sands and gravels with high silicon dioxide (SiO2) content. These sands are used for foundry, glassmaking, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and many other industrial applications. Production In 2025, industrial sand and gravel sold or used was an estimated 120 Mt valued at an estimated $4.5 billion. The quantity of industrial sand and gravel sold or used decreased by 5 percent, and the value decreased by 16 percent compared with 2024. The estimated average unit value of domestically produced industrial sand and gravel in 2025 was $36/t compared with $40.90/t in 2024. Industrial sand and gravel was produced by 131 companies from 207 operations in 38 states in 2025. The leading producing states were, in descending order of production, Texas, Wisconsin, Oklahoma and Louisiana. Combined production from these states accounted for 77 percent of total domestic sales and use. In April, Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC, a proppant supplier in North America, acquired High Roller Sand, which owned a sand facility in Texas. In August, Badger Mining Corp., an industrial sand supplier in North America, fully acquired AMI Silica, a company involved in the production and supply of industrial sand in North America. In December, Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC acquired Superior Silica Sands LLC, which owned sand facilities in Texas. World production of industrial sand and gravel was estimated to be 430 Mt in 2025. The United States was the world’s leading producer and consumer of industrial sand and gravel based on estimated world production figures. Consumption U.S. apparent consumption of industrial sand and gravel was estimated to be 120 Mt in 2025, a 6 percent decrease from 2024. The most important driving force in the industrial sand and gravel industry remained the production and sale of hydraulic-fracturing sand (frac sand). In recent years, the consumption of frac sand increased as hydrocarbon extraction from shale deposits increased. The quantity of frac sand used per well also increased, owing to increases of both the average length of wells and proppant intensity (proppant per meter of lateral length). However, in 2025, industrial sand and gravel consumption decreased as an oversupply of frac sand led to lower prices, which caused many industrial sand and gravel companies to decrease production or idle operations. Approximately 81 percent of the U.S. tonnage was used as frac sand and well-packing and cementing sand, and 7 percent as glassmaking sand. Other common uses were, in decreasing quantity of use, fillers, foundry sand, filtration sand and gravel, and recreational sand, which accounted for 6 percent combined. Other minor uses were, in decreasing quantity of use, chemicals, abrasives, silicon and ferrosilicon, ceramics, traction sand and metallurgical sand, which accounted for 1 percent combined. Other unspecified uses accounted for 4 percent combined. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the United States remained a net exporter of industrial sand and gravel, shipping it to almost every region of the world. High global demand for U.S. industrial sand and gravel can be attributed to the high quality and advanced processing techniques used in the United States for many grades of industrial sand and gravel, meeting specifications for virtually any use. Imports of silica are generally of two types — small shipments of very high-purity silica or a few large shipments of lower-grade silica shipped only under special circumstances (for example, very low freight rates). Imports of industrial sand and gravel in 2025 were an estimated 210 kt, a 22 percent decrease from 2024. U.S. exports were an estimated 8 Mt, a 4 percent increase from 2024. Outlook The industrial sand and gravel industry continued to be concerned with safety and health regulations and environmental restrictions, especially those concerning crystalline silica exposure. Local shortages of industrial sand and gravel were expected to continue to increase owing to land development priorities, local zoning regulations and logistical issues. These factors may result in future sand and gravel operations being located farther away from high-population centers. Increased efforts to reduce cost, emissions and the risk of exposure to crystalline silica have led to an increase of in-basin “dry sand” and undried “wet sand” being sold or used as frac sand instead of conventional “dry sand” from out-of-basin sources. These shifts may also lead to increased use of substitutes, such as petroleum coke-based lightweight proppants, as alternatives to traditional frac sand. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral commodity summaries 2026: U.S. Geological Survey, 222 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2026. Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC, 2025, Iron Oak Energyexpands Permian footprint with acquisition of High Roller Sand: Houston, TX, Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC, April 2. Accessed March 2, 2026, at https://www.ironoakenergy.com/news/iron-oak-energy-expands-permian-footprint-with-acquisition-of-high-roller-sand/.Wisconsin Industry Journal, 2025, Badger Mining Corp. acquires remaining stake in AMI Silica, securing full control: Washington, DC, Wisconsin Industry Journal, August 12. Accessed March 2, 2026, at https://www.wisconsinindustryjournal.com/article/839203473-badger-mining-corp-acquires-remaining-stake-in-ami-silica-securing-full-control.Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC, 2025, Iron Oak Energy Solutions doubles Eagle Ford Shale capacity with acquisition of Superior Silica Sands LLC: Houston, TX, Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC, December 16. Accessed March 2, 2026, at https://www.ironoakenergy.com/news/iron-oak-energy-solutions-doubles-eagle-ford-shale-capacity-with-acquisition-of-superior-silica-sands-llc/. Kaolin by Debashis Das, P.E., RESPEC Kaolin (China clay) is a widely used industrial mineral with global production estimated at approximately 45 to 50 Mt/a. Major producing countries include China, the United States, India, Brazil and Uzbekistan. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), kaolin is widely used in paper coating and filling, ceramics, and as a filler or extender in products such as paint and plastics, highlighting its broad industrial importance. Consumption of kaolin is primarily driven by the paper industry, followed by ceramics and paints, although demand patterns are evolving due to declining paper usage associated with digitalization. From an economic standpoint, kaolin pricing varies significantly by processing level, with higher-value products such as calcined kaolin commanding higher prices due to the energy-intensive beneficiation processes required. Transportation plays a key role in cost structure, as kaolin is a bulk commodity transported either as dry material or slurry, often over long distances to major industrial consumers. Production and consumption The kaolin market continues to demonstrate robust growth, driven by its diverse applications across various industries. According to the USGS, in 2025, the United States produced approximately 26 Mt of clay, valued at $1.8 billion, with kaolin accounting for approximately 4.8 Mt. This production primarily serves industries such as paper, ceramics, paints and plastics, where kaolin’s properties — such as whiteness, fine particle size and chemical inertness — are highly valued. Imports and exports In 2025, according to the USGS, the United States exported approximately 1.6 Mt of kaolin to Mexico, China, and Japan. By comparison, in 2025, only 19 kt of kaolin were imported into the United States. Kaolin exports accounted for $272 million and imports $3.2 million, resulting in a positive U.S. trade balance of $268.8 million. Pricing From a pricing perspective, kaolin markets have remained relatively stable but regionally volatile during 2024-2026. In the United States, average export prices reached approximately $339/t in 2024, reflecting the premium for processed, high-purity kaolin, while lower-grade imports were significantly cheaper at approximately $151/t. In Asia, bulk kaolin prices have remained much lower, with averages approximately $130-150/t in 2025, reflecting oversupply and weaker downstream demand. Overall, pricing trends show a moderate upward bias for specialty and processed grades, while commodity-grade kaolin remains under pressure due to ample supply and subdued demand from paper and ceramics sectors. Short-term price movements are influenced by inventory levels, seasonal construction activity and logistics disruptions, with recent data indicating flat to slightly declining prices in 2025 due to high inventories and cautious procurement. Trends and outlook Kaolin has many uses, including paper coating, ceramics manufacturing, paints, plastics and pharmaceuticals. Also, newer applications such as nano kaolin in advanced materials and polymers are emerging, contributing to steady market growth. Alternative materials such as precipitated calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide and talc compete with kaolin in several applications. However, kaolin remains competitive due to its relatively low cost and versatility. Globally, kaolin production and use are influenced by industrial demand trends, particularly in the construction and manufacturing sectors, as well as by technological shifts and material substitution. Environmental and regulatory considerations are increasingly significant in kaolin mining and processing. Kaolin is typically extracted through openpit mining, which can result in land disturbance, water consumption and tailings generation. Regulatory frameworks in major producing regions require effective environmental management, including land reclamation and water recycling. Stricter regulations on mining practices aim to mitigate the ecological impact of kaolin extraction, such as habitat disruption and water pollution. Consequently, companies are investing in sustainable mining techniques and processing technologies to comply with environmental standards and meet the growing demand for eco-friendly products. The ongoing Iran–U.S.–Israel conflict is contributing to rising energy and logistics costs, increasing production and transportation expenses, particularly for calcined kaolin and export-oriented producers. However, due to competitive market conditions and excess supply, these cost increases are only partially reflected in prices, resulting in a volatile but largely range-bound pricing environment. Overall, while long-term demand fundamentals remain positive, the market is currently characterized by supply abundance, cost pressures, and a gradual shift toward higher-value specialty kaolin products. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 KYANITE, ANDALUSITE AND SILLIMANITE by David W. Hawkins, Geology and Mineral Resources Program, Virginia Department of Energy Economic deposits Kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite are polymorphic minerals of the sillimanite minerals group (Al2SiO5). These minerals have different crystalline structures and unique physical and thermodynamic properties and form in response to high-grade regional or contact metamorphism. They are generally formed through hydrothermal alteration of silica-rich metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, and from mineralization within quartz veins and pegmatites. They also occur as placer deposits within unconsolidated beach and stream deposits. Economic and subeconomic concentrations of kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite occur in the Appalachian region of the southeastern United States. Other known occurrences are in Alaska, California, Florida, Idaho, Nevada and New Mexico. Economic deposits outside of the United States occur in Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, Canada, China, Finland, France, India, Ireland, Kenya, Madagascar, Nigeria, Norway, Peru, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Ukraine and Zimbabwe. Industrial properties and uses Primary uses for these minerals include refractory applications (steel and iron manufacturing), metallurgy, investment casting molds, glass manufacturing and ceramics. These minerals possess thermal and volumetric stability, which is ideal for heat-intensive applications such as refractory materials. These minerals can undergo a process known as calcination to produce synthetic mullite and silica. Calcination temperatures can range from 1,250 to 1,650 °C, and the resultant mullite typically has a melting point of 1,840 °C. The sillimanite minerals group and mullite have other uses such as insulating brick, firebrick, refractory concrete, kiln furniture, mortar and gunning mix. Additional end-products and uses include ceramics, glass, nonferrous metals, cement, brake shoes and pads, abrasive products, electrical insulators, additives, fillers, and filtration of aluminum slag and impurities. High-quality specimens have a market for gemstones. Production and consumption Based on 2025 estimates from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), global production of industrial-grade andalusite was restricted to four countries: South Africa (120 kt), France (60 kt), China (50 kt) and Peru (40 kt). Iran was reported to have produced andalusite, but no information was available for an estimate. Sillimanite and kyanite recovery was estimated at 2.5 kt for India (not including reclassified beach deposits). Estimates for andalusite production in China and South Africa were significantly adjusted for 2024 and 2025, according to the USGS. Industrial-grade kyanite was sourced almost exclusively from the United States (81.2 kt), which includes kyanite and calcined kyanite. The largest producer of industrial grade kyanite is Kyanite Mining Corp. (KMC), which has operated surface mines and processing facilities since 1945 in central Virginia. Active mining occurs at two locations (Willis Mountain and East Ridge), where the ore deposit geology consists of kyanite quartzite associated with a sequence of interlayered felsic and mafic metavolcanic strata of Ordovician age. Ore-grade material contains 10 to 40 percent kyanite, averaging about 25 percent. KMC produces a range of milled kyanite and calcined kyanite (> 55 percent Al2O3, < 0.85 percent Fe2O3 ) products that are shipped mainly by truck to domestic customers and to port facilities for delivery to international customers. Trademarked products include Virginia Kyanite and Virginia Mullite, with international and domestic customer bases estimated at about 55 percent and 45 percent, respectively. Annual production capacity at the Virginia operation is about 130 kt for commercial-grade kyanite concentrates and up to 39 kt for calcined kyanite per permit specifications. Resco Products Inc. (Piedmont Minerals Division) has mined andalusite from an andalusite-pyrophyllite (AlSi2O5(OH))-sericite deposit since 1958 to produce high-alumina firebrick and other specialty foundry and ceramic products in Hillsborough, NC. A heavy mineral sands operation in the southeastern United States recovered kyanite and/or sillimanite as byproducts; the location of the operation was not disclosed. The USGS reported that two companies, based in Alabama and Georgia, produced synthetic mullite from a combination of feedstock materials such as kyanite, kaolin, bauxite and bauxitic kaolin. Additional details on production volumes from the above operations were not available and were not included in production estimates for the United States. Imerys Group mines andalusite in the Brittany Region of France (Glomel) from weathered Ordovician-age schists adjacent to granitic rocks of the Armorican Massif. Imerys Group also mines andalusite from the Rhino Mine in South Africa, from deposits which are hosted in highly weathered pelitic rocks of the Pretoria Group associated with contact metamorphic rocks of the Bushveld Igneous Complex. ARM Andalusite Resources (Pty) Ltd has reported investments in mining and processing in the Thabazimbi area of South Africa. Other South Africa mining operations have been concentrated in the Limpopo Province. In northern Peru, Andalucita S.A. has been recovering andalusite since 2009, with an estimated production capacity of 50 kt as of 2018. In China, andalusite reserves were estimated at 361 Mt, according to details from a company website in 2023 (Xinjiang Xinrong Yilong Andalusite Co., Ltd). The website also stated that the company has an annual production capacity of 40 kt of andalusite products. According to the USGS 2019 Minerals Yearbook for kyanite and related minerals, another company reported an annual production capacity of 50 kt of kyanite-concentrate and 30 kt of calcined kyanite from 34 Mt of kyanite ore reserves in the Henan Province. Another company reported reserves of 213 Mt of andalusite in Xinjiang, China. Additional production information was not available. India is the primary source for the global supply of sillimanite with more then 73 percent of the sillimanite resources occuring in heavy mineral sand placers along India’s modern beaches. According to the 2023 Indian Minerals Yearbook (released January 2025), India’s Ministry of Mines estimated total resources of sillimanite at 72.3 Mt and kyanite at 105.7 Mt. Total reserves of sillimanite were estimated at 8.2 Mt, with the majority from the Odisha and Andhra Pradesh states. Other operations were located in the states of Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Tamil Nadu. Low- to medium-grade reserves of kyanite have been estimated at 436 kt. The Indian Minerals Yearbook stated that there has been no production of andalusite reported since 1988, and it estimated reconnaissance-level resources of 126 Mt but did not indicate known reserves. Foreign trade and prices According to the U.S. Census Bureau, domestic exports of kyanite and mullite in 2025 were slightly down from the previous year at 38.4 kt and 15.5 kt, respectively. Asia and Europe were the largest export markets in 2025. Imports of sillimanite group minerals to the United States were estimated at 2.4 kt in 2025. Sillimanite minerals group imports were down 59 percent from 2024, with the largest decrease observed from imports from Africa (4.9 kt in 2024 to 1.2 kt in 2025). Mullite imports were reported at 7.6 kt in 2025, mostly from within North America (approximately 62 percent). Domestic export commodity prices for kyanite ($505/t) and mullite ($576/t) increased by approximately 10 percent from the previous year. Prices for these minerals vary on an annual basis due to many factors including the overall grade of the ore, reserves, physical properties such as particle size, import and export restrictions, and monetary exchange rates. Trends and outlook Global steel production is a proxy for market demand for the sillimanite minerals group as these minerals are critical raw refractory materials for use in the steel industry. Approximately 1,850 Mt of steel was produced in 2025 based on estimates provided by the World Steel Association, with China leading in total production (961 Mt). Other top producers included India (165 Mt), the United States (82 Mt), Japan (81 Mt), Russia (68 Mt) and South Korea (62Mt). These six countries comprised 77 percent of global steel production. Steel production across the European Union was estimated at 126 Mt in 2025. Notable fluctuations were observed for China, Russia and Japan, which each saw a 4 percent decrease from the previous year. The European Union and South Korea had production levels decrease by 3 percent and 2 percent, respectively. Production in the United States was up 3 percent from 2024. The largest increase in production was reported for India at 10 percent from 2024 to 2025. Demand for steel will likely remain steady across the United States to support domestic vehicle manufacturing and infrastructure projects. The increased domestic steel production is likely in part due to the imposed tariffs on steel and metal imports, which were in place at variable rates during 2025. While domestic production continues to increase, downstream manufacturing costs are expected to be higher due to a more limited import market and increased costs for domestic raw materials. References Andalucita S.A., 2026, http://www.andalucita.com.ARM Andalusite, 2026, https://armandalusite.co.za/about/.Hatfield, A.K., 2026, Kyanite and Related Minerals: United States Geological Survey, Mineral CommoditySummaries, February 2026, https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/kyanite-statistics-and-information.Hatfield, A.K., 2024, Kyanite and Related Minerals: United States Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook 2023 Tables, October 2024, https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/kyanite-statistics-and-information.Hatfield, A.K., 2019, Kyanite and Related Minerals: United States Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook 2019, March 2024, https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol1/2019/myb1-2019-kyanite.pdf.Imerys, 2026, https://www.imerys.com/minerals/andalusite.Indian Bureau of Mines, Ministry of Mines, Government of India, Indian Minerals Yearbook 2023, January 2025, https://ibm.gov.in/writereaddata/files/17454767536809dc9139ba8IMYB_BOOK_2023.pdf.KMC, 2026- Kyanite Mining Corporation, www.kyanite.com.Owens, B.E. and Pasek, M.A., 2007, Kyanite quartzites in the Piedmont Province of Virginia: Evidence for a possible high-sulfidation system, Economic Geology, v. 102, p. 495-509.Resco Products, Inc., 2026, www.rescoproducts.com.Sweet, P.C., Lassetter, W.L., and Sherwood, W.C., 2016, Non-fuel mineral resources in Virginia, in Bailey, C.M., Sherwood, W.C., Eaton, L.S., and Powars, D.S., (eds.), The Geology of Virginia: Virginia Museum of Natural History Special Publication 18, p. 407-441.US Census Bureau, 2026, USA Trade® Online, https://usatrade.census.gov/ .Virginia Energy, 2026 - Virginia Department of Energy, Mineral Mining Program 2025 Annual Production Data, https://www.energy.virginia.gov/mineral-mining/mineralmining.shtml.World Steel Association, 2026, www.worldsteel.org.Xinjiang Xinrong Yilong Andalusite Co., Ltd, https://www.andalusitemining.com/. Lime In 2025, all commercially produced lime (CaO, Ca(OH)2) in the United States was manufactured from limestone or dolomite, but lime can also be produced from a variety of similar carbonate materials, such as aragonite, chalk, coral, marble and seashells, if they are of high chemical purity. The term lime in this review refers to high-calcium and dolomitic quicklime, their hydroxide (hydrated) forms and dead-burned dolomite. In the United States, most lime (about 80 percent) is produced as quicklime. Hydrated lime (also called slaked lime) is a dry calcium hydroxide powder made from reacting quicklime with a controlled amount of water in a hydrator. Slaked lime is widely used in aqueous systems as a low-cost alkali to neutralize or balance acidity. Dead-burned dolomite is the primary form of lime used in refractories. Production and consumption by J.R. MacGregor, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey In 2025, an estimated 15 Mt of quicklime and hydrate was produced in the United States (excluding independent commercial hydrators), unchanged from 2024. At year’s end, 24 companies were producing lime, which included 16 companies with commercial sales and eight companies that produced lime strictly for internal use (for example, sugar companies). These companies had 70 primary lime plants (plants operating quicklime kilns) in 30 states. Three of these 24 companies operated only hydrating plants in eight states. In 2025, the five leading U.S. lime companies produced quicklime or hydrate in 23 states and accounted for about 80 percent of total U.S. lime production. The leading producing states were Alabama, Missouri, Ohio and Texas. The United States was the world’s third-ranked lime producer in the world after China and India. Apparent domestic consumption was estimated to be 15 Mt, unchanged from 2024. Major markets for lime were, in descending order of consumption, steelmaking, chemical and industrial applications (such as the manufacture of fertilizer, glass, paper and pulp, and precipitated calcium carbonate, and sugar refining), flue-gas treatment, construction, water treatment and nonferrous-metal mining. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, imports of lime increased by 3 percent to 373 kt in 2025 from 362 kt in 2024. Canada (66 percent) and Mexico (26 percent) were the leading sources of lime imports to the United States. U.S. lime exports decreased by 14 percent to 283 kt in 2025 from 331 kt in 2024. Lime exports were primarily shipped to Canada (96 percent). Prices The U.S. Geological Survey calculates unit values of lime products from the quantity and value data reported for lime sold or used by the lime producers on a free-on-board plant basis, including the cost of containers. These calculations provide average values that eliminate variables such as potentially significant differences between list prices and individual supply contracts. Lime prices are not published in trade publications. To avoid disclosing company proprietary data, value data for dead-burned dolomite have not been reported separately but are included in the weighted average of all lime types. The total weighted average price of all quicklime sold or used was estimated to be $260/t and the hydrate sold or used was estimated to be $280/t in 2025, compared with $261/t and $274/t in 2024, respectively. Outlook Lime sales in markets such as chemical and industrial, construction and steel are expected to follow the trend in gross domestic products in the overall economy. The outlook for flue-gas systems (lime’s third-ranked market) serving coal-fired power plants, incinerators and other industries is more specific to the power generation industry. As sustained natural-gas development and exploration have yielded large increases in natural-gas reserves and low natural-gas prices, U.S. electric utilities have increasingly transitioned their fuel use from coal to natural gas or renewables. This shift in power generation has taken place through either converting existing coal-fired plants or retiring them altogether. Natural gas has the advantage of producing lower emissions than coal and, as a result, does not usually require sulfur dioxide scrubbing, which could lead to decreased use of lime in flue-gas scrubbing systems. In 2025, 17 percent of domestic utility-scale electricity generation was from coal compared with 16 percent in 2024, owing to regional cold temperatures and relatively higher natural-gas prices in some markets. However, long-term trends indicate that coal-fired electricity generation continues to decline as plants are retired or remain idled, gradually giving way to natural gas and renewable energy sources. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Lime: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 116–117, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf.U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2026, Short-term energy outlook: U.S. Energy Information Administration, February 10, p. 62. Accessed February 24, 2026, at https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/steo/archives/feb26.pdf. Magnesia by Himesh Patel, Andean Systems Magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO) is a versatile and critical industrial mineral sourced from magnesite mining, seawater and various brines. As the global economy transitions toward greener technologies and infrastructure, the strategic value of magnesium compounds has intensified, particularly in supporting the steel, agricultural and environmental sectors. Magnesia is processed into three primary forms: caustic-calcined magnesia (CCM, 51 percent of production), dead-burned magnesia (DBM, 38 percent) and fused magnesia (FM, 11 percent). In refractories, DBM and FM are critical for high-temperature applications in the steel, cement and glass industries. In environmental applications, CCM and magnesium hydroxide are increasingly used as flame retardants, environmental neutralizers and for wastewater treatment. In new technology, emerging research focuses on magnesia-based nanomaterials and carbon-capture applications. Production and reserves Global magnesite mine production in 2025 was 21 Mt, similar to approximately 21.1 Mt in 2024. China maintained its status as the dominant producer, accounting for roughly 12.7 Mt or 60 percent of the global total. Other significant producers include Russia, Turkey, Brazil and European Union nations such as Spain and Austria. In the United States, 2025 production (measured as MgO content) was estimated at 400 kt, valued at approximately $350 million. Domestic production is primarily derived from seawater and brines in California, Delaware, Michigan and Utah, alongside a single magnesite mine in Nevada. Table 1 shows statistics on magnesite production and minable reserves from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Countries like China, Slovakia, Russia and Turkey have the world’s largest reserves of magnesite. These four countries account for more than 67 percent of world magnesite reserves. The United States has approximately 35,000 kt of reserves, a minor portion of the 7.7 Gt of estimated global magnesite reserves. Imports/exports International trade is heavily skewed toward Chinese exports, which accounted for more than 90 percent of the world’s primary magnesium metal export in 2025. The United States remains a major importer, with 640 kt of MgO content in imports for consumption in 2025. U.S. net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption rose to 59 percent in 2025, up from 52 percent in 2024. The primary sources of U.S. imports during 2021 to 2024 were: for total imports, China (58 percent), Brazil (8 percent), Canada (8 percent) and Israel (8 percent); for DBM and FM, China (69 percent) and Brazil (17 percent); and for CCM, China (74 percent) and Canada (21 percent). Prices and economics Most magnesium compound prices faced pressure in early 2024 due to oversupply from China. However, by early 2025, prices began to stabilize. Average free-on-board (f.o.b.) prices for Chinese materials were $220 to $230/t for DBM (90 percent grade) and $1,500 to $2,500/t for FM. Industry news The industry is currently undergoing significant consolidation. In China’s Liaoning Province, which hosts a high concentration of global production, the government aims to reduce the number of magnesite-mining enterprises from 114 in 2020 to 63 in 2024 and an expected 56 by the end of 2025. In the United States, a major magnesia producer expanded its footprint in July 2025 by acquiring another manufacturer that operates a magnesite mine in Nevada. Australia is emerging as a new supplier — in October 2025, 14 kt of magnesite were shipped from a trial openpit mine to a Japanese steel refiner. In the United States, to strengthen the domestic supply chain for critical materials, the U.S. government has intensified efforts to increase magnesium compound and metal production through strategic funding and public-private partnerships. In February 2026, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) selected US Green Magnesium (a Jean Boulle Group company) as an industry partner, providing funding for a collaborative project with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to optimize energy-efficient magnesium metal production using carbo-thermal reduction. Furthering this push, the U.S. Department of Defense awarded a $19.6 million contract to the startup Magrathea Metals under the Defense Production Act to establish domestic manufacturing of magnesium, a vital precursor for high-performance aerospace and defense alloys. These specific awards are part of a broader federal strategy that includes the DOE’s March 2026 announcement of a $500 million funding opportunity aimed at boosting the processing of critical minerals and derivative battery materials.In addition to these federal initiatives, the startup Duranium is developing a modernized carbochlorination process and a novel closed-loop reactor to produce carbon-neutral magnesium, aiming to supply 12 percent of U.S. demand by 2029 with a pilot facility scheduled for operation in 2026. By supporting these innovative companies and startups, the United States aims to mitigate its heavy net import reliance, which reached 58 percent for magnesium compounds in 2025, and secure the materials necessary for national security and the growing clean-energy sector. Trends and outlook The global magnesia market is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 5 to 6 percent between 2026 and 2033, driven largely by infrastructure development in India and Southeast Asia. While China will remain the top producer, countries like Turkey, Brazil and Australia are actively expanding capacities to mitigate geopolitical risks and reduce global dependency on Chinese exports. Prices are expected to remain volatile in the near term, influenced by energy costs and stricter environmental regulations. Mica by S.M. Jasinski, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Mica has several unique physical properties. The crystalline structure of mica forms layers that can be split or delaminated into thin sheets. These sheets are chemically inert, dielectric, elastic, flexible, hydrophilic, insulating, lightweight, platy, reflective, refractive, resilient and range in opacity from transparent to opaque. Mica is stable when exposed to electricity, light, moisture and extreme temperatures. The mica group represents 37 phyllosilicate minerals that have a layered or platy texture. The commercially important micas are muscovite and phlogopite, which are used in a variety of applications. Muscovite is the principal mica used by the electrical industry to make mica-based capacitors that can operate in environments with temperatures and (or) frequencies that are too high for polypropylene capacitors. Phlogopite mica is used in plastic composites for automotive applications because of its dimensional stability, increased stiffness and improved heat distortion temperature. Production In 2025, U.S. mine production of scrap and flake mica was estimated to be 26 kt, an 8 percent increase from 2024. Production of ground mica was an estimated 59 kt, 16 percent higher than in 2024. Mica was mined in Georgia and North Carolina. Scrap mica was recovered primarily from mica and sericite schist and as a byproduct from the production of feldspar, industrial sand beneficiation and kaolin. Ground mica was produced from domestic and imported scrap and flake mica. In 2025, world production of scrap and flake mica was estimated to have decreased to 350 kt from 376 kt in 2024. China (85 kt), Madagascar (70 kt), Finland (57 kt) and the United States (26 kt) were the leading producers. Data on world production of sheet mica have been unavailable for several years, but India (1 kt) was thought to be the leading producer. Consumption Domestic apparent consumption of all forms of scrap and flake mica was estimated to have been 39 kt, 3 percent lower than in 2024. Apparent consumption of sheet mica was estimated to have increased to 4,200 t in 2025 from 3,650 t in 2024, owing to an increase in exports. The leading domestic use of ground mica was in joint compound for filling and finishing seams and blemishes in gypsum wallboard (drywall). The mica acts as a filler and extender, provides smooth consistency, improves the workability of the compound and provides resistance to cracking. The second-ranked use of ground mica was as an additive to drilling muds by the natural-gas and oil well drilling industry. Coarsely ground mica flakes help prevent the loss of circulation by sealing porous sections of the drill hole. Mica was used in paint, where ground mica is used as a pigment extender that also facilitates suspension, reduces chalking, prevents shrinking and shearing of the paint film, increases resistance of the paint film to water penetration and weathering, and brightens the tone of colored pigments. The plastics industry used ground mica as an extender and filler, especially in parts for automobiles as lightweight insulation to suppress sound and vibration. Other significant uses for ground mica are in the rubber industry as an inert filler and mold-release compound. As a surface coating in the production of rolled roofing and asphalt shingles, mica prevents the sticking of adjacent surfaces. Mica was used in decorative coatings on wallpaper, concrete, stucco and tile surfaces. Ground phlogopite mica was used in automotive brake linings and clutch plates to reduce noise and vibration (asbestos substitute).Wet-ground mica, which retains the brilliancy of its cleavage faces, is used primarily in pearlescent paints by the automotive industry. In the cosmetics industry, its reflective and refractive properties make mica an important ingredient in blushes, eyeliner, eyeshadow, foundation, hair and body glitter, lip gloss, lipstick, mascara, moisturizing lotions and nail polish. Mica is added to latex balloons to provide a colored shiny surface. Sheet mica was used principally in the electronics and electrical industries. Its usefulness in these applications is derived from its unique electrical and thermal insulating properties and its mechanical properties, which allow it to be cut, punched, stamped and machined to close tolerances. Prices In 2025, the average unit value of scrap and flake mica produced in the United States, which included high-quality sericite, was estimated to be $130/t. The average unit value of dry-ground mica was estimated to be $320/t, and the average unit value of wet-ground mica was estimated to be $350/t. Sheet mica prices vary with grade and can range from less than $1/kg for low-quality mica to more than $2,000/kg for the highest quality. The estimated average unit value of mica splittings consumed in the United States in 2025 was $1.80/kg. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports and exports of scrap and flake mica were 18.0 kt and 4.18 kt, respectively, in 2025. Imports of scrap and flake mica decreased by 9 percent, and exports were nearly the same as those in 2024. In 2025, China (50 percent), Canada (36 percent) and Finland (4 percent) supplied most U.S. imports of scrap and flake mica, with the remainder from several other countries. Most exports of scrap and flake mica went to Mexico (29 percent), Canada (14 percent) and Brazil (10 percent). In 2025, U.S. imports and exports of sheet mica were 5.09 kt and 852 kt, respectively. Imports of sheet mica increased by 13 percent and exports decreased by 2 percent compared with 2024. In 2025, China (39 percent), Vietnam (33 percent) and the Republic of Korea (9 percent) supplied most U.S. imports of sheet mica, with the remainder from several other countries. Most U.S. exports of sheet mica went to Mexico (26 percent), Canada (12 percent) and the Netherlands (10 percent). Outlook The major markets for ground mica — drywall joint compounds and paints — are mature and relatively stable industries, with growth tied to housing construction and interest rates. Demand is also affected by automobile production because interior and exterior parts typically contain dry-ground mica or engineered mica composites, and exterior surfaces may be painted with wet-ground pearlescent pigments and mica-containing coatings. Demand for ground mica in smaller specialty markets such as coated micas, cosmetics, nylon and polyester resins, and polypropylene composites is expected to have an annual growth rate slightly higher than that of the entire ground mica industry.Consumption of block and sheet mica is expected to increase slowly as demand increases in a few specialty markets, such as electronics. A shortage of domestic high-quality block mica is expected to continue because of the generally low percentage of high-quality mica in deposits currently being mined, mostly from pegmatites. Future supplies of all forms of mica are expected to come increasingly from imports, primarily from Brazil, Canada, China, Finland and India. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 Peat by Amanda S. Brioche, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production and consumption In 2025, the estimated free-on-board (f.o.b.) mine value of marketable peat sold in the United States was $11 million. Peat was produced by 26 companies operating in 11 states, while three additional companies remained idle. Florida, Maine and Michigan were the leading producers and accounted for 84 percent of total domestic sales by volume. Reed-sedge peat represented roughly 94 percent of total output, with sphagnum moss contributing about 5 percent. Domestic consumption continued to be driven primarily by horticultural applications. Major uses included growing media for nurseries, mushroom cultivation, golf-course construction, seed inoculants and vegetable production. Industrial uses included oil absorbents and filtration media for removing contaminants from mine drainage, stormwater systems and septic effluent. Apparent U.S. consumption in 2025 was estimated at 1.7 Mt, increasing from 1.55 Mt in 2024 due to higher imports and reduced year-end stocks (Fig.1). Imports/exports Imports remain critical to U.S. supply, accounting for an estimated 80 percent of apparent consumption in 2025. Canada supplied approximately 95 percent of imports between 2021 and 2024, with smaller amounts arriving from other countries. Imports rose slightly to 1.3 Mt in 2025 compared with 1.28 Mt in 2024. Exports decreased by 31 percent, falling from 38,200 t in 2024 to an estimated 26,000 t in 2025, reflecting reduced foreign demand and greater domestic use. Marketing, prices, economics and transportation The average f.o.b. unit value of domestically produced peat declined to $23/t in 2025, down from $25/t in 2024 and $38.52/t in 2021. The lower prices reflect ongoing competition from imported materials and slow recovery in some horticultural market segments. Transportation patterns continued to follow established north–south distribution corridors, especially for Canadian imports moving into major horticultural production centers in the Midwest, Southeast and Pacific Coast regions. Domestic producer stocks declined to an estimated 160 kt in 2025, down from 220 kt in 2024, tightening supply but remaining within normal historical ranges. Industry news and issues Global production in 2025 remained concentrated in northern-latitude countries. The leading producers by estimated tonnage were Finland, Canada, Latvia, Belarus, Russia and Sweden. In 2025, Belarus commissioned a new peat briquet processing facility in the Krupki district of the Minsk region with an initial capacity of 32.5 kt/a, expandable to 90 kt/a with additional shifts. The facility signed supply contracts with partners in China in early 2025 and plans to expand shipments to Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkey and Uzbekistan. Climate policy measures continue to influence peat markets, particularly in Europe. Finland reported more than a one-third decrease in peat use as the country advances toward its 2035 carbon-neutrality target. Broader European Union climate strategies, including new medium-term climate plans adopted in 2025, are accelerating transitions away from peat for energy. Uses and substitutes Horticultural uses remained the primary market segment. Research into improved filtration media highlighted peat’s strong water-holding capacity and favorable physicochemical properties for capturing dissolved metals and nutrients. New briquetting capacity internationally may increase availability of densified peat for energy and industrial absorbents in select regions. Potential substitutes in horticulture include composted yard waste, coir (coconut fiber), shredded paper and straw. While these materials compete in some applications, peat’s superior water retention and consistency limit substitution potential for most growing media formulations. No synthetic materials currently match peat’s combined physical and chemical characteristics at scale. Environmental, regulatory and reclamation issues Peatlands serve as long-term carbon sinks, prompting increasing scrutiny of peat harvesting and use. Several countries, especially in Europe, are considering or implementing policies to restrict peat extraction or phase out peat-based products. Global peatland area is decreasing at approximately 0.05 percent per year due to harvesting and land development. Reclamation regulations remain well developed in major producing regions. In the United States, more than half of known peat resources occur in undisturbed areas of Alaska, where significant environmental protections limit development in sensitive peatland ecosystems. Trends and outlook U.S. peat demand will continue to follow trends in horticulture and greenhouse production. Slight increases in consumption are possible if economic conditions strengthen in the nursery and landscaping industries. Internationally, climate-related policies will remain the most important factor shaping production. European decreases in peat use may shift export flows, particularly for materials processed in Belarus, Estonia and Latvia. Canadian producers are expected to continue supplying the bulk of U.S. imports. The long-term outlook is mixed. While strong horticultural demand persists, regulatory pressure and environmental concerns are driving greater interest in alternative materials and peatland conservation worldwide. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral commodity summaries 2026—Peat: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 138–139, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2026. Perlite by Kristi J. Simmons, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Perlite, an amorphous siliceous volcanic glass containing 2 to 5 percent water, is commonly light gray to black in its natural state. Found globally, it is most often extracted through openpit mining. When rapidly heated to about 900 °C, the contained water converts to steam, causing the ore to expand up to 20 times its original size. The resulting material, which is lightweight and bright white, has many properties suited for multiple industrial applications. Production In 2025, domestic processed crude perlite sold and used was estimated to be 460 kt, a 2 percent increase in quantity compared with 452 kt in 2024. The average unit value of processed crude perlite sold and used by U.S. operations in 2025 was $78/t, compared with $75/t in 2024. Crude ore production was from nine mines operated by six companies in six western states (Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico and Oregon). New Mexico continued to be the leading producing state. Processed crude perlite was expanded at 53 plants in 29 states. World production of perlite in 2025 was estimated to be 4.6 Mt, compared with 4.52 Mt in 2024. Consumption Expanded perlite’s lightweight, porous structure combined with its durability, fire resistance, inert nature, low acoustic and thermal conductivity, and excellent water retention make it useful across many industries and applications. In 2025, construction-related uses, such as concrete aggregates, formed products and masonry- and cavity-fill insulation led the expanded perlite market with 45 percent of total sales and use. Filter aid and horticultural uses accounted for 15 percent each. Usage data for fillers, previously a significant end-use, was withheld starting in 2023 to protect proprietary company information. Fillers, along with various other uses for expanded perlite, comprised the remaining portion of its consumption. Domestic apparent consumption, defined as processed crude perlite sold or used by producers plus imports minus exports, decreased in 2025 to an estimated 590 kt from 650 kt in 2024. Substitutes Substitutes for perlite vary depending on the application. In construction, materials such as diatomite, expanded clay and shale, pumice and slag can serve as alternatives. For horticultural uses, coco coir, pumice, vermiculite and wood pulp are alternative soil additives and are sometimes used in conjunction with perlite to enhance its effectiveness. Substitutes are chosen based on the specific demands of each application and their cost-effectiveness. Foreign trade Trade data for perlite are not collected as a separate category by the U.S. Census Bureau but are included within the group “vermiculite, perlite and chlorites, unexpanded.” Domestic exports and imports for consumption of perlite were estimated based on information published by the U.S. Census Bureau and adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey based on average unit value, countries known to produce perlite, and likely port destinations to eliminate other minerals reported in the same group. An estimated 170 kt of perlite valued at $15 million was imported into the United States during 2025 compared with 220 kt valued at $21 million in 2024. The estimated average unit value of imported perlite in 2025 was $85/t, compared with $93/t in 2024. Most imports were estimated to have originated from Greece (97 percent). In 2025, exports of perlite were estimated to have decreased to 23 kt valued at $3.9 million compared with 28 kt valued at $4.6 million. The estimated average unit value of exported perlite was $168/t in 2025 compared with $160/t in 2024. An estimated 99 percent of exports were shipped to Canada. International In 2025, global production of perlite was estimated to be 4.6 Mt compared with 4.52 Mt in 2024. The world’s leading producers were, in descending order of production, China (1.5 Mt), Turkey (1.4 Mt), Greece (840 kt) and the United States (460 kt). Most of China’s perlite production was presumed to be consumed internally while Greece and Turkey were the leading exporters of perlite. Outlook The perlite industry is well established and stable. The utilization of perlite is anticipated to stay consistent. Construction market fluctuations could affect consumption in related uses. The diverse properties of perlite continue to drive the exploration of innovative and emerging issues. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Perlite: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 140–141, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf. Potash by S.M. Jasinski, U.S. Geological Survey, National Minerals Information Center Potash encompasses a variety of mined and manufactured salts, all of which contain the element potassium in water-soluble form. The term potash, however, also can refer specifically to potassic fertilizers, which are potassium chloride (KCl, the mineral sylvite), potassium sulfate (K2SO4, or sulfate of potash, SOP, usually a manufactured product) and SOPM (K2SO4 · 2MgSO4, or langbeinite or double sulfate of potash magnesia). Muriate of potash (MOP) for fertilizer use is an agriculturally acceptable mix of KCl (95 percent pure or greater) and sodium chloride (halite) that includes minor amounts of other nontoxic minerals from the mined ore and is neither the crude ore sylvinite nor pure sylvite. Because the potassium content of its common salts varies, the potash industry has established a common standard of measurement for defining a product’s potassium content (or purity) related to the approximate potassium oxide (K2O) content.On Nov. 7, 2025, the Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals was published in the Federal Register (90 FR 50494). The new list contains 60 individual mineral commodities, which added 10 new mineral commodities, including potash.In January 2025, a Michigan company received a conditional commitment from the U.S. Department of Energy Loan Programs Office for a $1.26 billion loan to help finance the development of a new potash and salt mine in Osceola County, MI. The company is required to meet certain environmental, financial, legal and technical conditions before the loan can be approved. The new mine was planned to have an initial annual production capacity of 800 kt of MOP and 1 Mt of salt. Production In 2025, U.S. potash production was estimated to be 500 kt of K2O, which was 22 percent higher than in 2024. Domestic sales were estimated to be 460 kt of K2O, which was 10 percent higher than in 2024. In the United States, MOP was produced by Intrepid Potash Inc. from solar evaporation and solution mines in New Mexico and Utah. Mosaic Co. and Intrepid each produced SOPM from underground mines in New Mexico. Compass Minerals International Inc. produced SOP from solar evaporation of brine from the Great Salt Lake in Utah. SOPM and SOP combined accounted for the majority of U.S. production in 2025.World production was estimated to be 49 Mt of K2O, which was 5 percent higher than 2024. Canada (15 Mt), Russia (10 Mt), Belarus (6.0 Mt) and China (6.3 Mt) were the leading producers, accounting for 76 percent of total production. Canada, the leading potash-producing country and exporter in the world, accounted for 33 percent of global capacity. All production in Canada was from Saskatchewan in 2025. Potash was produced by three companies: Nutrien Ltd., which controlled 24 percent of world MOP capacity at six mines; Mosaic, which operated three mines; and K+S Aktiengesellschaft, which operated one mine. Consumption In 2025, domestic production and sales were estimated to have increased. Apparent consumption and imports were both lower compared with 2024. U.S. potash consumption was estimated to have decreased to 5,900 kt of K2O compared with 6,200 kt K2O in 2024. According to a report from the International Fertilizer Association, world consumption of potash fertilizers in 2025 was estimated to have increased to 41.1 Mt from 40.5 Mt in 2024. Asia and South America were the leading consuming regions. Because it is a source of soluble potassium, about 90 percent of potash consumed globally is used as fertilizer (plant nutrient). Potassium is one of the three primary nutrients required for plant growth and maturation; the others are fixed nitrogen and soluble phosphorus. The remaining 10 percent of potash consumed is used to produce potassium chemicals, which are used in such applications as aluminum recycling, animal feed supplements, oil-well drilling mud, snow and ice melting, soap manufacturing, steel heat-treating and water softening. Trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports of potash decreased by 15 percent to 5.1 Mt of K2O in 2025, compared with 5.97 Mt of K2O in 2024. The United States was 92 percent net import reliant for potash in 2025. Canada (81 percent), Russia (12 percent) and Israel (4 percent) were the leading suppliers for all forms of potash combined. The United States is not a significant exporter of potash. In 2025, exports decreased to 139 kt of K2O from 150 kt of K2O in 2024. Prices The Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada spot price for standard potash began 2025 averaging $261/t ($239/st) and ended the year at $329/t ($298/st). The U.S. price for SOP began 2025 in the range of $605/st to $642/st and ended the year in the range of $662/st to $720/st. The U.S. price for SOPM, on a free-on-board (f.o.b.) Carlsbad, NM basis, began the year in the range of $325/st to $365/st and ended the year in the range of $385/st to $425/st. Outlook Potash is an essential fertilizer nutrient for which no substitute exists. Growing world population and its need for food will require continued increases in potash production and consumption. Additionally, increased ethanol production from corn and other crops will require proportional increases in fertilizer use. World annual potash production capacity was projected to increase to about 68.1 Mt in 2026 from 66 Mt in 2025. Most of the increase would be MOP from new mines and expansion projects in Laos and Russia. Other new MOP mines in Belarus, Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, Morocco, Spain and the United States were planned to begin operation past 2028. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, 2025, Final 2025 list of critical minerals: Federal Register, v. 90, no. 214, November 7, p. 50494-50497.U.S. Department of Energy, 2025, LPO announces conditional commitment to Michigan Potash to produce fertilizer for U.S. farmers, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Energy press release, January 17. (Accessed March 6, 2026, at https://www.energy.gov/edf/articles/lpo-announces-conditional-commitment-michigan-potash-produce-fertilizer-us-farmers.)U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Potash: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 146–147, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2026. Pumice and Pumicite by R.D. Crangle Jr., National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Pumice is a volcanic rock formed through the cooling of air-pocketed lava, which results in a highly porous, low-density rock. The low density allows some pumice to float on water. Large pumice rafts, consisting in some instances of thousands of individual pieces of pumice clumped together, are a unique geologic phenomenon and have been documented to be as long as 30 km (19 miles) and to have drifted for several years in oceanic waters. Pumicite is defined as grains, flakes, threads and (or) shards of volcanic glass finer than 4 mm (0.20 in.) in diameter. Pumicite and volcanic ash are descriptive terms that are often used interchangeably. The porous, lightweight properties of pumice are well suited for its main use as an aggregate in lightweight building blocks and assorted building products. Production and price Mine production of pumice in the United States during 2025 was estimated to be 430 kt (470,000 st), 5 percent more than in 2024. The unit value of pumice was estimated to be $44/t ($40/st) in 2025, 5 percent higher than in 2024. Pumice was produced at 10 operations in California, Idaho, Kansas, New Mexico and Oregon. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. pumice exports totaled 12.7 kt (14,000 st), 13 percent more than in 2024. Imports totaled 73.1 kt (80,600 st), 51percent less than in 2024.World resources of pumice are adequate for the foreseeable future. However, transportation costs may encourage development of deposits closer to markets. Total world production of pumice was estimated to be 20 Mt (22 million st) in 2025, a decrease from 20.2 Mt (22.3 million st) in 2024. Pumice is used more extensively as a building material outside the United States, which explains the large global production of pumice relative to that of the United States. The estimated top world producers in 2025 were Turkey (9.7 Mt or 11 million st), Jordan (1.1 Mt or 1.2 million st), Greece (1 Mt or 1.1 million st), Saudi Arabia (980 kt or 1.1 million st), Algeria (900 kt or 990,000 st), Uganda (830 kt or 910,000 st) and Ecuador (800 kt or 880,000 st). Processing and consumption Pumice is usually extracted by simple openpit methods using rippers, bulldozers and front-end loaders. Processing typically is limited to drying, crushing and screening, although some abrasive grades may require fine grinding and classification. Lightweight pumice building blocks, the primary use for pumice, may be sawn into a variety of shapes and sizes. In 2025, other major applications included abrasives and horticulture (including landscaping). Minor applications include the use of pumice as an absorbent, as a concrete aggregate and admixture, as a filter aid and as a traction enhancer for tires. A small percentage of pumice was used in abrasive-type products, including pencil erasers, polishing agents for circuit boards and television monitors, chinchilla chew stones, exfoliants in cosmetics and the removal of henna tattoos, and a variety of heavy-duty hand cleaners. Imports were primarily used as raw material for building block (such as cinderblock) and other lightweight aggregate applications. Several substitutes exist for pumice in agriculture, in horticulture, as an aggregate, as a concrete additive and in other end-products. Outlook Although pumice and pumicite are plentiful in the Western United States, legal challenges and public land designations could limit access to known deposits. Pumice and pumicite production are sensitive to mining and transportation costs and major markets located in eastern states. An increase in fuel prices would likely lead to increases in production expenditures and sales prices. Imports and competing materials could become attractive substitutes for domestic products. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Pumice and Pumicite: U.S. Geological Survey, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-pumice.pdf. Salt by Cody Vining and Jacob Hewett, RESPEC Salt remains the most cost-effective material on the market for maintaining full mobility on roads and highways and for preventing accidents during the winter snow season. This mineral is also critical as a chemical feedstock for the production of chlorine and caustic soda, a key component for regenerating the ion exchange resins used for water conditioning, a required mineral in the production of animal feed products, and the most ubiquitous ingredient in the food industry. The method used to obtain salt varies depending on the end benefit, with salt derived from rock salt, brine, vacuum pan salt and solar salt. For 2025, the total U.S. salt apparent consumption (domestic sold or used minus exports plus imports) is estimated at 57 Mt. This is closer to historical consumption trends than the previous two years (2023 and 2024), which had apparent consumptions in the range of 51 to 53 Mt. The sources of consumed salt for 2025 were salt in brine (44 percent), rock salt (38 percent), vacuum pan salt (9 percent) and solar salt (9 percent). Domestic annual salt production in the United States differs from year to year and is estimated at approximately 40 Mt in 2025, which is slightly less than the revised 2024 domestic salt production (40.4 Mt) and is in line with the five-year and 10-year averages of approximately 40.3 and 41.7 Mt/a, respectively. At the beginning of 2025, 60 salt-producing plants existed in 15 states, four fewer than in 2024, with approximately 95 percent of total production coming from Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Texas and Utah. In 2025, most domestic production (96 percent) was consumed within the United States, with approximately 1.5 Mt exported. Estimated 2025 exports were less than 2024 exports (2.06 Mt) and aligned with the five-year average for exports, which has been approximately 1.5 Mt/a. To meet 2025 demand, the United States imported an estimated 19 Mt of salt (33 percent of total apparent consumption). These imports originated from Canada (21percent), Chile (23 percent), Mexico (26 percent) and Egypt (6 percent), with the remaining imports (24 percent) coming from several other producing countries. The total value of U.S. salt sales in 2025 was estimated at $2.6 billion, a slight increase from 2024 ($2.5 billion). The average price of vacuum pan salt in 2025 was $260/t, an increase from $212/t in 2020 and consistent with the 2024 average price. The average price of solar salt in 2025 was $150/t, down from $152/t in 2024, but an increase from $123/t in 2020. The average price for rock salt in 2025 was $54/t, a slight increase from the average 2024 price of $53/t, but a decrease from the five-year high of $61/t reported in 2020. Salt in brine continues to increase in price, and was at $11/t in 2025. Total world production in 2025 is estimated at 271.1 Mt, which is approximately 3.5 Mt less than the revised 2024 production (274.7 Mt). China remains the world’s largest salt producer at approximately 56 Mt/a, while the United States and India (the world’s second and third largest producers) produced an estimated 40 and 30 Mt in 2025, respectively. These three countries account for 46 percent of world production, while the other countries collectively produce approximately 145.1 Mt (54 percent of world production). The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) expects demand for salt brine that is used in the chlor-alkali industry to continue to increase in 2026 as demand for caustic soda and polyvinyl chloride rises globally, especially in Asia. However, the USGS anticipates the domestic demand to remain largely flat. For most applications, no economical substitutes for salt currently exist. References The production and usage data used in this report relied almost entirely on research conducted by the minerals commodity specialists at the U.S. Geological Survey, and the key document referenced was the USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2026. Soda Ash by Debashis Das, P.E., RESPEC Production According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), domestic soda ash (sodium carbonate) produced in 2025 was estimated at 12 Mt for a total market value of $1.8 billion. This figure is 3 percent higher than the output of 2024. The U.S. soda ash industry is composed of four companies in Wyoming (WE Soda, Sisecam, Solvay and Tata Chemicals), operating five plants, and one company in California (Searles Valley Minerals Inc.), operating one plant. The combined nameplate capacity of these five operations is 13.9 Mt/a. China was the world’s largest producer of soda ash (38 Mt), mostly synthetic, followed by the United States and Turkey. These three countries accounted for around 80 percent of the world’s soda ash production in 2025. Consumption The reported soda ash consumption in the United States in 2025 was approximately 4.3 Mt, down 1.2 percent from 2024. Nearly half of the total soda ash produced in 2025 (approximately 45 percent) went into glass products, with approximately 28 percent used in chemicals and the remaining for soaps/detergents, flue-gas desulfurization, distributors and paper. Imports and exports During 2025, the United States exported approximately 6.9 Mt of soda ash, more than one-half of its total production. The United States only imported approximately 35 kt of soda ash, most of which came from Turkey. Pricing Soda ash prices on a free-on-board (f.o.b.) plant basis in the United States decreased from $169/t in 2024 to an estimated $150/t in 2025. As of April 2026, soda ash spot prices in the United States have stabilized at approximately $170/t but remain below peak levels. Capacity expansions by Chinese and Turkish producers are one of the major reasons for lower prices. However, the conflict between the United States, Israel and Iran in the Middle East has introduced new supply-chain costs and uncertainties that may reverse the downward price trend in some regional markets. Trends and outlook The global soda ash market is expected to grow at a moderate compound annual growth rate of approximately 3 to 4 percent through 2030 to 2031, driven by demand from the glass industry (particularly container and solar glass), as well as water treatment and chemical applications. However, the near-term outlook is being shaped by geopolitical tensions, particularly the ongoing Iran-United States-Israel conflict, which has introduced volatility in the energy and logistics markets. Disruptions in key shipping routes such as the Strait of Hormuz have increased freight costs and supply-chain risks, while higher oil and natural-gas prices are raising production costs, especially for energy-intensive synthetic soda ash operations. At the same time, the industry continues to face short-term oversupply due to significant capacity additions (approximately 15 to 20 Mt/a globally between 2023 and 2028, largely in China and the United States), which is placing downward pressure on prices. These opposing forces — cost inflation driven by geopolitical factors and structural oversupply — are expected to result in a volatile yet range-bound pricing environment in the near term. Natural soda ash producers, particularly in North America, are likely to maintain a competitive advantage due to lower cost structures. Overall, while long-term demand fundamentals remain positive, the market is in a post-peak adjustment phase influenced by both supply expansion and geopolitical uncertainty. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2026, Soda Ash. Strontium by A.K. Hatfield, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production and consumption Although strontium is the 17th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, only the minerals celestite (strontium sulfate) and strontianite (strontium carbonate) contain strontium in sufficient quantities to make recovery practical. Celestite has been the leading source of strontium since the 1870s because it occurs more frequently in economically attractive sedimentary deposits. The largest celestite deposits are found in China, Iran, Mexico, Spain and Turkey, although little to no production has been reported for Turkey in recent years. Strontianite has been identified in various countries worldwide. The world’s leading producers of celestite in 2025 were Iran, Spain, China and Mexico. Of the estimated 450 kt (500,000 st) of celestite produced worldwide, nearly all was produced in those countries. Although celestite deposits occur throughout the United States, none have been mined since 1959. However, in September, an Australia-based company announced its acquisition of a 100 percent interest in a strontium deposit in California that included plans for additional strontium mineralization exploration.Based on full-year 2025 trade data, U.S. apparent consumption of strontium (contained in celestite and manufactured strontium compounds) was 10.3 kt (11,300 st), a significant increase compared with 3.65 kt (4,030 st) in 2024. In recent years, celestite imports have been variable, corresponding to the number of operating rotary drill rigs. Celestite may be used as an additive in drilling muds or as a substitute for barite, and the substitution is more likely when barite prices increase, and drilling activity is high. Although drilling activity in 2025 decreased by 6 percent from 2024 and was 40 percent below that in 2019 before the COVID-19 pandemic, substitutions for barite and stockpiling may have accounted for increased imports. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the gross weight of total imports of strontium compounds and minerals increased to 21.2 kt (23,400 st) in 2025 from 6.64 kt (7,320 st) in 2024. Mexico was the source of 61 percent of all strontium imports. Imports of celestite, nearly all from Mexico, increased significantly in 2025, likely due to greater use of celestite in oil and natural-gas well drilling fluids. Although celestite imports increased significantly in 2025, they remained nearly 25 percent below that seen in 2019 before the COVID-19 pandemic. Some imported celestite may have been stockpiled for future use, but stock data were not available. Strontium carbonate exports were 39 t gross weight (23 t of strontium content) in 2025, a 62 percent decrease compared with 102 t gross weight (61 t of strontium content) in 2024. Prices In 2025, the average U.S. Customs unit value of imported strontium carbonate was $1.86/kg($0.84/lb) and that of strontium nitrate was $2.14/kg ($0.97/lb). The average value of imported celestite decreased 81 percent to $154/t ($140/st) from 2024; high-value celestite imports were most likely mineral specimens. Legislation and government programs In 2024, funding through the Defense Production Act investment program was announced to establish domestic manufacturing for 22 critical chemicals. A company in Louisiana and one in Ohio were selected to produce strontium nitrate, strontium oxalate and strontium peroxide, among other chemicals. Strontium was included or excluded from critical minerals lists developed by several countries and regions. Outlook Celestite is rarely consumed directly, except as an additive to drilling fluids for oil and natural-gas exploration and production, for which celestite is ground but undergoes no chemical processing. In other uses, it is typically converted to strontium carbonate through chemical processing. Strontium carbonate is used directly in some applications and is also converted into downstream chemicals such as strontium chloride, strontium hydroxide or strontium nitrate. Large-scale domestic production of strontium carbonate ceased in 2006, although a few domestic companies continued to manufacture and/or distribute small quantities of downstream strontium chemicals from imported strontium carbonate. The amount of strontium carbonate used in ceramic ferrite magnets was estimated to be about the same as that of strontium nitrate used in pyrotechnics and signals in 2025. These two end-uses are thought to account for most strontium consumption, other than in celestite. Other applications for strontium compounds include master alloys for aluminum casting, pigments and fillers in corrosion-resistant paints, electrolytic production of zinc, and glass. With continued developments in advanced applications, strontium consumption in new end-uses may increase. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Strontium: U.S. Geological Survey, p. 180–181, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf.Dateline Resources Ltd., 2025, Dateline Resources acquires 100 percent of Argos, America’s largest known strontium mine, supporting U.S. efforts to secure domestic mineral supply, San Bernardino, CA: Dateline Resources Ltd. press release, Sept. 15. Accessed March 9, 2026, at https://www.datelineresources.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/2509-15-DTR-Argos_Press-Release.pdf.Baker Hughes Co., 2026, Rig count overview & summary count: Baker Hughes Co., March 6. Accessed March 9, 2026, via https://rigcount.bakerhughes.com/.U.S. Department of Defense, 2024, DOD awards $192.5 million to establish domestic manufacturing capabilities for critical defense chemicals: U.S. Department of Defense, Feb. 1. Accessed March 9, 2026, at https://www.war.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3663086/dod-awards-1925-million-to-establish-domestic-manufacturing-capabilities-for-cr/. TALC AND PYROPHYLLITE by E.F. McCarthy, Performance Minerals LLC Talc is a platy, hydrous magnesium silicate mineral. It has the theoretical composition 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O, which equates to 31.7 percent MgO, 63.5 percent percent SiO2 and 4.8 percent H2O. It occurs in a variety of mineral habitats in association with other minerals like carbonates and chlorite. In addition, atoms like divalent iron can substitute for magnesium in the talc lattice. Depending on the levels of these other minerals or atomic substitutions, the talc ore may not have commercial utility, but many natural talc-chlorite and talc-carbonate ores are milled directly to make saleable products, especially in applications like coatings. Other applications, especially plastics and technical ceramics, require high talc content and minimal levels of specific other elements or minerals. In its pure powder form, talc is naturally oleophilic, soft, relatively inert and white in color. There are a wide variety of ways talc can be classified; the natural crystal size is an example. Microcrystalline talc has a natural crystal size of 5 to 45 µm, and macrocrystalline talc crystals are 50 to 150 µm. Microcrystalline grades are particularly good absorbents for paper pitch control, excellent reinforcing agents for crosslinked rubbers and have good pressing characteristics for structural ceramics. Macrocrystalline grades have been repeatedly sheared over geological time, resulting in larger, more planar structures that are more suitable for reinforcing thermoplastic polymers and paper coatings. Pyrophyllite is a platy, hydrous aluminum silicate. It has the theoretical composition Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O, which equates to 28.3 percent Al2O3, 66.7 percent SiO2 and 5 percent H2O. It also occurs with other minerals, most notably quartz, pyrite and mica. Some of these natural mixtures have excellent machining qualities, most notably wonderstone (South Africa) and pagodite (China). In its pure form, it is also oleophilic, soft, relatively inert and white, and used competitively with talc in Brazil and parts of Asia in paper and coatings. Production and consumption Three companies operated five talc producing mines in the United States in 2025, with production estimated to be 490 kt in 2025, an increase of 7 percent from 2024. Magris Talc operated one mine in Montana and one in Vermont (with beneficiation processes at both locations); High Divide Minerals (formerly Barretts Minerals) operated two mines in Montana; and Daltile operated one mine for its internal use in west Texas. Magris Talc also operated one mine in Ontario, Canada. High Divide Minerals beneficiates talc via color sorting and froth flotation at its plant in Dillon, MT. RT Vanderbilt and Resco Products operated pyrophyllite mines in North Carolina and Trinity Resources recovered the mineral from old tailings in Newfoundland, Canada. Pyrophyllite production values were not reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) but are reported to be steady over the past three years.Cimbar Performance Minerals mills processed imported talc ore at plants in Texas, Indiana and Ohio; IMI Fabi processed imported talc ore at plants in West Virginia and New York. Multiple European and Asian companies export finished talc products directly into the United States. Talc imports into the United States were reported at 237 kt in 2025, an increase of 2 percent from 232 kt in 2024 (these statistics may be affected by discrepancies between import and export data sources as well as use of alternative product codes). Pakistan, China, Canada, Finland and the Netherlands were the major import sources. It is believed that the talc coming from Pakistan was sourced from tribal controlled regions of southern Afghanistan. The United States exported 141 kt of talc in 2025, with Mexico, Canada, Asia and South America being the major destinations. Table 1 lists production, consumption, import, export and sales information.The average value of U.S. mined talc ore was $57/t, and the average for milled products from domestic ore was $330/t. The average value of imported ore was $238/t and that of finished product $521/t. The average value of exported products (almost all finished) was $697/t. Table 2 lists pricing and value data. Outside of the United States, China was the world’s largest producer (and consumer) of talc, followed by India, Pakistan/Afghanistan, Brazil, France and Finland. Germany, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, the Netherlands and Mexico were major importers. Uses and applications According to the USGS, the major uses for talc mined and sold in the United States were plastics (36 percent), paint (19 percent), ceramics (17 percent), paper (12 percent) and roofing (8 percent). The major use for imported talc is in plastics.In plastics, talc is used primarily for reinforcing polypropylene compounds for automotive parts such as bumpers, interior panels, under-the-hood parts and trim. It is also used with polypropylene in rigid packaging and for reinforcing polyvinyl chloride in construction applications like wood plastic composites. Talc is used as an antibloc in polyethylene films and in a range of thermoplastics as a nucleating agent. In ceramics, talc is a critical component of honeycomb cordierite for automotive exhaust catalyst supports and filters, and is an additive in wall and large-form floor tiles. Talc is used in primer and industrial anticorrosion coatings and in paper for absorbing pitch in pulp mills. Pyrophyllite is used in ceramic tile, refractories, paint and as an insecticide carrier. The use of machined imported wonderstone for the manufacture of synthetic diamonds has declined dramatically as the traditional high-temperature, high-pressure process has been replaced by a newer chemical vapor deposition process. Business developments In February, private-equity-owned Barretts Minerals rebranded to High Divide Minerals. In July, it announced a $13 million investment in its Dillon processing plant; in October, a further $40 million was slated to be spent to remove overburden and do a major pushback to reopen the inactive Treasure mine. In May, Elementis announced the sale of its U.K. talc business to privately held IMI Fabi. This talc business has mining, flotation and milling operations in Finland and a milling operation in the Netherlands. Regulatory In December 2024, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a proposed rule for testing talc products to be used in cosmetics. The rule would have required all products to be tested by polarized light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy to ensure the absence of asbestiform materials per the Modernization of Cosmetics Regulatory Act. The National Association of Manufacturers formally protested the procedure, asserting it was based on flawed science. In a surprising development, the FDA withdrew the proposed requirement in November 2025. In June 2025, the Lyon, France-based International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) issued its final report on talc in which it was reclassified into Group 2A, or “probably carcinogenic to humans.” This has been challenged by both industry and scientific groups as a misinterpretation of poorly conducted animal studies. In a recent paper, Driscoll et al. (2026) cites the similarity of talc with other low-solubility materials like titanium dioxide, which was reclassified by IARC as Group 2A. While the European Chemicals Agency initially classified titanium dioxide as a “Category 2 suspected carcinogen,” that decision was reversed when appealed to the European Court of Justice. It is expected that talc will face a similar process. References Driscoll, K. E., Everitt, J. I., & Borm, P. J. A. (2026). Talc fits the framework of poorly soluble low-toxicity particles – implications for hazard classification. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 167, 106060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2026.106060.U.N. Statistics Division.U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026. Tin by Shivakumar Angadi, CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar, India In 2025, the United States remained highly dependent on imported tin because it had no primary tin mine production and limited recycling capacity. The country imported about 32 kt of tin, mainly from Peru, Bolivia, Indonesia, and Brazil, while exports were relatively small. As a result, nearly 77 percent of U.S. tin demand was met through imports, highlighting the country’s reliance on foreign supplies. The tin market during 2025-2026 is experiencing a pronounced mismatch between supply and demand. While global production remains constrained by regulatory shifts in Indonesia and mining bans in Myanmar, demand has surged due to the artificial-intelligence (AI) revolution and the green energy transition. This structural deficit propelled prices to a historic peak of $57,730/t in March 2026. As soldering needs for semiconductors and electric vehicles (EVs) continue to outpace mining capacity, the outlook for tin remains one of high-value and strategic goods.Demand Tin was used across several key industries in the United States. The largest share of demand came from chemicals and tinplate production (25 percent each), followed by electronics and soldering applications (12 percent). Other uses included alloys, tinning, bearings and various industrial applications. This diverse demand reflects tin’s importance in the packaging, electronics and manufacturing sectors. Global tin demand in 2025 is primarily driven by the electronics industry, with soldering remaining the dominant application and accounting for 48 to 53 percent of the market. This sector is projected to grow at an annual rate of 6 to 8 percent, driven by the rapid expansion of AI data centers, 5G infrastructure and advanced semiconductor manufacturing. Beyond electronics, tin chemicals cover 15 to 17 percent of demand, serving as essential polyvinyl chloride stabilizers and catalysts, while tinplate maintains a 10 to 12 percent share due to rising consumer demand for canned goods. The energy transition is also a critical driver, with lead-acid batteries accounting for 7 to 8 percent of the market, fueled by China’s booming e-bike and automotive sectors. Furthermore, tin is increasingly vital for electric vehicles and renewable energy technologies. The remaining 10 percent of demand is distributed across alloys, including brass and bronze, used in aerospace and construction. This diverse industrial footprint, coupled with emerging high-tech needs, continues to outpace supply, keeping the global market in a structural deficit. Production Global tin mine production in 2025 totaled approximately 291,100 t, with China leading production and Yunnan Tin Group securing a 23 percent global market share by producing 91,200 t of refined tin. Despite regulatory-driven supply volatility in Indonesia and export constraints in Myanmar, the market saw resilient contributions from South America and emerging production in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The overall landscape was defined by tight supply, as regional output struggled to meet high industrial demand. Table 1 summarizes the production of tin by country. Price The global cost of tin has experienced a dramatic and sustained escalation, transforming it from a relatively stable commodity into a highly volatile metal. During the initial COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns in 2020, prices averaged $17,125/t but nearly doubled to $32,384/t shortly after. This surge was primarily fueled by the 2021 and 2022 post-lockdown electronics boom and significant global shipping delays. By 2024, the market faced further pressure due to supply disruptions in major producing hubs like Myanmar and Indonesia. The upward trajectory intensified in 2025 as demand reached new heights, driven by the rapid expansion of AI data centers and the global shift toward EVs, both of which rely heavily on tin for advanced soldering and electronic components. The market reached a historic milestone in March 2026, when tin prices hit a record high of $57,730/t. This historic high reflects a structural supply deficit as traditional mining output struggles to keep pace with the specialized needs of the modern green-energy and AI revolutions. Figure 1 illustrates the trend in tin prices over the last six years. Industry news The tin industries in Myanmar and Indonesia, two of the world’s most critical suppliers, are currently grappling with severe production constraints, disrupting the global market. In Myanmar, a persistent mining ban in the Man Maw region of Wa state has significantly choked the flow of tin concentrate to Chinese smelters. Simultaneously, Indonesia has intensified its crackdown on illegal mining and enforced stricter resource audits, leading to widespread operational freezes and export delays. These collective bottlenecks have created a profound global supply shortage. Consequently, the inability to meet surging industrial demand has driven prices higher, culminating in record-breaking market highs throughout 2025 and 2026. Trends and outlook The market price of tin metal continues to escalate daily, driven by relentless demand within the electronics sector for high-tech soldering. By March 2026, price forecasts were revised upward to the $35,000/t to $45,000/t range, yet actual spot prices consistently outperformed these estimates due to a severe structural supply deficit. This shortage was exacerbated by Indonesia’s regulatory shift to mandatory annual production approvals (RKAB), which led to significant administrative delays and constrained output from the world’s second-largest producer. References Westmetall, www.westmetall.comHDIN Research, https://www.hdinresearch.com/news/601U.S. Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/tin-statistics-and-informationLondon Metal Exchange, https://www.lme.com/metals/non-ferrous/lme-tinStatista, https://www.statista.com/topics/13589/tin-mining-worldwide/Shanghai Metals Market, https://reports.metal.com/225-smm-tin-industry-analysis-and-outlookWorld Population Review, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/tin-production-by-countryAndrew Bauman, Jason Gustely, Ian Lange and Brad Handler, Tin Demand Is Booming; Opportunities and Risks for Small Communities in Indonesia, March 25, 2026, https://payneinstitute.mines.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/149/2026/03/Payne-Institute-Commentary-Tim-Demand-Is-Booming.pdfInternational Tin Association, www.internationaltin.org/market-analysis Titanium by Deepak Nayak, CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar, India Titanium minerals that are economically important include ilmenite, leucoxene and rutile. Titanium metal is widely recognized for its corrosion resistance and high strength-to-weight ratio. However, about 90 percent of titanium is used in the form of titanium dioxide (TiO2), which serves as a white pigment in paints, paper and plastics. The quality of TiO2 pigment is determined by its purity, refractive index, particle size and surface properties. Production Global production of titanium mineral concentrates in 2025 was estimated to be 9.85 Mt of contained TiO2, slightly more than in 2024 (Tables 1 and 2). Less than 10 percent of global production was attributed to natural rutile. Rounded to one significant digit, U.S. production of titanium concentrates was estimated to be 100 kt of contained TiO2. In the United States, The Chemours Co. produced titanium mineral concentrates at mining operations near Starke, FL, and Nahunta, GA. In California, Twin Pines Minerals LLC reprocessed mine tailings to produce mixed mineral concentrates containing titanium and zirconium. Production of TiO2 pigment in the United States in 2025 was estimated to be 1,000 kt, about 6 percent more than in 2024, with domestic consumption estimated to have been 900 kt in 2025, a 10 percent increase from 818 kt in 2024. U.S. producers of TiO2 pigment, all of which used the chloride process, were Chemours, INEOS Pigments USA Inc., Louisiana Pigment Co. L.P. and Tronox Ltd. Global titanium sponge metal production in 2025, excluding the United States, where no production occurred in 2025, was estimated to be 370 kt, a slight decline from 2024 (Table 3). In the United States, the titanium sponge metal production facility operated by Honeywell Electronic Materials Inc. in Utah was closed in 2024. Other facilities in Henderson, NV, and Rowley, UT, have been idle since 2020 and 2016, respectively. Foreign trade U.S. imports of titanium mineral concentrates included ilmenite, rutile, synthetic rutile and titanium slag. The United States was heavily reliant on imports of titanium mineral concentrates because domestic consumption of titanium minerals greatly exceeded domestic production capacity. U.S. imports were 730 kt based on estimated TiO2 equivalent, and the leading import sources were South Africa (26 percent), Madagascar (16 percent), Canada (16 percent) and Mozambique (13 percent). The United States was a net exporter of TiO2 pigments. In 2025, U.S. exports of TiO2 pigments were 330 kt based on TiO2 equivalent. U.S. producers of titanium ingot and downstream products depend on imports of titanium sponge and scrap. In 2025, titanium sponge imports were estimated at 44 kt, exceeding the historical high of 40.4 kt imported in 2023. The main sources for sponge imports were Japan (73 percent), Saudi Arabia (13 percent), and Kazakhstan (13 percent). Titanium scrap imports were estimated at 32 kt, primarily sourced from the United Kingdom (19 percent), France and Japan (10 percent each), and Germany, the Republic of Korea and Singapore (9 percent each). Prices According to data obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, which outlines imports for consumption, the average annual price (unit value) for ilmenite was $300/t in 2025, a decline of 9 percent compared to 2024. The price for bulk rutile was $1,140/t, a decrease of 12 percent compared to 2023. The U.S. import and export prices for TiO2 pigments increased by 6 and 1 percent, respectively (Fig. 1). The average annual price for titanium sponge metal imported from Japan was $12/kg, an increase of 9 percent from 2024, whereas that for titanium scrap was $7.7/kg, a decrease of 9 percent from 2024 (Fig. 2). Outlook Titanium mineral concentrates play a crucial role in the production of TiO2 pigments, which are essential components in a variety of products, including paint, paper and plastics. The demand for these key applications is closely tied to fluctuations in the gross domestic product, as economic growth often drives increased manufacturing and consumption rates. In 2025, domestic apparent consumption of titanium mineral concentrates was estimated to have increased 10 percent from 2024, as reflected by an estimated 12 percent increase in imports. Although heavily reliant on imports of titanium mineral concentrates, the United States was a net exporter of TiO2 pigments. References U.S. Geological Survey, Titanium Statistics and Information. Accessed: Apr. 22, 2026: https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/titanium-statistics-and-information.U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries-Titanium Mineral Concentrates, February 2026.U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries-Titanium and Titanium Dioxide, February 2026. Tungsten by Surya Kanta Das, Indian Bureau of Mines, Nagpur, India Tungsten is widely recognized as a critical and strategic metal by many countries, including India, the United States, the European Union, Canada and Australia, owing to its essential applications and the high risk associated with its global supply chain. It possesses exceptional physicochemical properties, such as the highest melting point among all metals (approximately 3,422 °C), high hardness, high density (19.25 g/cm³) and a low coefficient of thermal expansion, which make it indispensable for a broad range of high-tech industrial applications. Tungsten is predominantly utilized in the form of tungsten carbide, a key material for industries such as mining, petroleum, ordnance, aerospace, automotive, construction and metalworking. In addition, tungsten-based alloys are extensively employed in the manufacture of electronic components, power engineering equipment, medical devices, heating elements and filaments. Production The global tungsten reserve is estimated at more than 4.7 Mt, with annual mine production of approximately 81.5 kt in 2024, increasing slightly to 85 kt in 2025. Scheelite (CaWO4) and wolframite ((Fe,Mn)WO4) are considered the primary sources for tungsten extraction despite the presence of numerous tungsten-bearing minerals. Table 1 shows tungsten metal production in 2024 and 2025, with China accounting for more than 78 percent of global production, followed by Vietnam (3.5 percent), Kazakhstan (2.8 percent), Russia (2.3 percent) and North Korea (2.3 percent). In addition, a substantial portion of tungsten metal is produced from recycling tungsten scraps, such as metal drills, superalloys and tungsten carbide. Prices Tungsten is primarily traded as tungsten scrap and ammonium para-tungstate (APT). In addition, the global tungsten market includes products such as alloys, powders and ferro-tungsten. In December 2025, the monthly average price of tungsten concentrate (on an ex-works China basis) reached $57,248/t, representing a 27 percent increase compared to November 2025 and nearly three times the average price recorded in December 2024 (Fig. 1). Similarly, the monthly average price of APT in the European Union market was $862/t in December 2025, reflecting a 19 percent rise from the previous month and more than double the price observed in December 2024. Outlook Although molybdenum, niobium and titanium-based carbides have demonstrated potential as substitutes for tungsten in certain applications, the overall demand for tungsten is expected to rise in the coming years. This growth is primarily driven by expanding industries such as automotive, mining, defense, aerospace, electronics and electric vehicles. China is expected to maintain its dominance in the global tungsten market as the leading producer of both tungsten concentrate and APT. Meanwhile, countries including Austria, Portugal, Russia, Spain and Vietnam have shown a gradual increase in tungsten production in recent years. In parallel, the recycling of tungsten scrap and the recovery of tungsten from historical mine tailings have gained significant attention as important secondary resources. Overall, these trends highlight the growing strategic importance of tungsten and the need for sustainable, diversified supply sources to meet future demand. References K.B. Shedd, 2021 Minerals Yearbook-Tungsten, 2025, U.S. Geological Survey.U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summary, Tungsten, 2026.U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Industry Surveys, Tungsten-December.Indian Minerals Yearbook 2022, Part-II: Metals and Alloys, Tungsten, 61st Edition, 2024, Indian Bureau of Mines. Vanadium by Désirée E. Polyak, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Vanadium is extracted from vanadiferous ores, slags and residues and converted into vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) or vanadium trioxide (V2O3). Most V2O5 and V2O3 are then converted into ferrovanadium (FeV). In 2025, most of the world’s vanadium supply came from either vanadiferous titanomagnetite (VTM) mineral concentrates or from steelmaking slags, which are generated during the production of steel from VTM. Production Industry convention for describing vanadium production typically applies the terms primary production (from mined ore as mineral concentrates from VTM or sandstone-hosted vanadium, with or without uranium), joint production (from vanadium slags that are produced during steelmaking) and secondary production (from residues, industrial waste materials and spent catalysts), based on the source material for production. The United States did not produce any primary vanadium in 2025. Vanadium production in Utah from the mining of uraniferous sandstones on the Colorado Plateau ceased in early 2020 and has not restarted since. The United States continued to be a major producer of vanadium products from secondary sources, including spent catalysts, ashes and petroleum residues. In 2025, U.S. estimated secondary production was 7.5 kt (vanadium content), a 10 percent increase from 2024. Secondary production was from processed waste materials to produce FeV, specialty alloys, vanadium-bearing chemicals and V2O5. In 2025, world production of primary vanadium from ore, concentrate and slag was 110 kt, with the dominant producers being China, accounting for 72 percent of global production, and Russia, accounting for 19 percent. Brazil (5 percent) and South Africa (4 percent) were the other global producers. Energy Fuels Inc.’s White Mesa Mill (operated by EFR White Mesa LLC), near Blanding, UT, had the only vanadium coproduct recovery circuit in the United States. However, Energy Fuels has not recovered vanadium from its existing tailings pond solutions since 2020. Energy Fuels did not produce or sell any vanadium in 2025 and had approximately 410 t of V2O5 in inventory. Some global vanadium projects in various stages of development included Australia Vanadium Ltd.’s Australian primary vanadium project and Gabanintha primary vanadium project in Australia, Strategic Resources Inc.’s BlackRock vanadium-titanium-iron project in Canada, Ferro-Alloy Resources Group’s Balasausqandiq vanadium project in Kazakhstan, and Vanadium Resources’ (VR8) Steelpoortdrift primary vanadium project in South Africa. China also had a range of projects at different stages of development. However, it is important to note that many announced projects worldwide remain in very early stages, with some already delayed or postponed indefinitely due to logistical, technical or funding issues. Consumption Vanadium’s primary use is as a hardening agent in steel, in which it is critical for imparting strength, toughness and wear resistance. These properties are especially important in high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, particularly for products in the construction industry and in tool steel. A smaller but essential use for vanadium is in titanium aerospace alloys for both commercial and military aircraft. Nonmetallurgical applications include catalysts, ceramics, electronics, large-scale energy storage and vanadium chemicals. Catalysts are the leading nonmetallurgical use for vanadium. The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) stores energy in a liquid electrolyte solution containing vanadium ions in different oxidation states. VRFB technology has become an increasingly crucial component of large-scale energy storage, enabling safe, long-duration energy storage with a high safety rating. Prices The 2025 U.S. annual average price for FeV (78 to 82 percent vanadium content), as published by Argus Media, Argus Non-Ferrous Markets, was $13.96/lb, a 7 percent increase compared with $13.05/lb in 2024. The 2025 annual average price in China, 98 percent V2O5 content, was $5.003/lb, an 8 percent decrease compared with $5.444/lb in 2024. Foreign trade The United States continued to be a net importer of many vanadium materials in 2025. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the United States imported (vanadium content) an estimated 2,200 t of FeV, 1,800 t of V2O5 and 460 t of other oxides and hydroxides of vanadium. Total estimated imports for the consumption of all vanadium-bearing materials decreased by 16 percent from 2024. In 2025, the United States exported (vanadium content) an estimated 10 t of FeV, 140 t of V2O5 and 380 t of other oxides and hydroxides of vanadium. Total estimated exports of all vanadium-bearing materials decreased by 29 percent from 2024. Outlook The majority of vanadium is used in steel production, with consumption trends closely tied to fluctuations in the steel industry. As steel consumption increases and applications become more specialized, the number of vanadium-containing steel grades continues to expand. Consumption of HSLA steel is expected to increase as the construction industry works to use less steel overall, reduce carbon emissions, improve strength and lower overall material weight. The outlook for vanadium consumption in nonferrous alloys largely depends on trends in the use of titanium alloys in business, commercial and military aircraft. As global environmental regulations on fuels and waste become stricter, the recovery of elements like vanadium from spent catalysts and fossil fuel residues is expected to increase. While the steel industry remains the dominant consumer of vanadium, VRFBs are increasingly being used for large-scale energy storage. Despite China’s dominance in the VRFB market, its growth has slowed, with installations projected to decline to 2.4 GWh in 2025, an 8 percent decrease from the previous year. Owing to high costs and limited profitability, Chinese manufacturers have looked to overseas markets, including partnerships with Australia and exports of VRFBs to regions such as the United States and the European Union. Chinese producers have also focused on cost reduction by reducing vanadium electrolyte production costs, but this will require technological advancements that take time. According to analysts, long-term growth was expected to depend on lowering vanadium electrolyte costs and addressing trade and financing challenges. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposed only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Vanadium: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 202–203. Accessed Feb. 11, 2026, at https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf.Energy Fuels Inc., 2025, Energy Fuels announces Q3-2025 results: Denver, CO, Energy Fuels Inc., Nov. 3. Accessed Feb. 11, 2026, at https://investors.energyfuels.com/2025-11-03-Energy-Fuels-Announces-Q3-2025-Results.Project Blue Group Ltd., 2025, Vanadium–Medium-term outlook: London, United Kingdom, Project Blue Group Ltd., July. Accessed Feb. 11, 2026, at https://www.projectblue.com/.Project Blue Group Ltd., 2025, Hype fades as the future of vanadium flow batteries grows uncertain: London, United Kingdom, Project Blue Group Ltd., Dec. 11. Accessed Feb. 11, 2026, at https://projectblue.com/blue/news-analysis/1389/hype-fades-as-the-future-of-vanadium-flow-batteries-grows-uncertain. Vermiculite by Kristi J. Simmons, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Vermiculite, a hydrated magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate, is extracted from near-surface deposits. In its raw form, vermiculite resembles mica and contains water molecules within its structure. It can appear in various colors, from black to shades of brown and yellow. When heated quickly to temperatures above 870 °C, the intermolecular water flashes into steam, causing the flakes to expand into gold- or bronze-colored, accordion-like particles. This process, known as exfoliation, results in an ultralightweight, chemically inert, fire-resistant and odorless material. Vermiculite was discovered in 1824 by Thomas H. Webb. However, the first successful commercial vermiculite mine did not begin production until the 1920s, when the Zonolite Co. began mining vermiculite in Libby, MT. Currently, there are two active vermiculite mining companies in the United States. Vermiculite, which gets its name from the Latin word vermiculare, meaning to breed worms, is mostly mined using traditional openpit methods. Production In 2025 an estimated 100 kt of vermiculite was produced in the United States by two mining companies: Specialty Vermiculite Corp. (a subsidiary of Dicalite Management Group Inc.) in Enoree, SC, and Virginia Vermiculite LLC in Louisa, VA. Data have been rounded to the nearest hundred thousand tons to avoid disclosing proprietary company data. An estimated 55 kt of vermiculite ore was exfoliated in 2025, a 7 percent decrease from 59 kt in 2024. Exfoliation was performed by 10 companies operating 12 plants in seven states (Arizona, Arkansas, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania and South Carolina). Consumption Unexpanded vermiculite concentrate is predominantly used in fire protection products, but the majority of vermiculite is used in exfoliated form. Exfoliated vermiculite is valued for its diverse applications due to attributes such as fire resistance, high-absorption capacity, inertness, low density and low thermal conductivity. Agricultural uses (horticulture, soil conditioning and fertilizer carrier) were the leading uses of exfoliated vermiculite in 2025. When combined with peat, bark or compost, vermiculite enhances aeration and moisture retention, fostering rapid plant growth. Additional notable applications encompass aggregates (concrete, plaster and premixes) and insulation (loose-fill, block, high-temperature and packing insulation and sealants). Substitutes There are numerous alternatives to vermiculite. Expanded perlite, along with more cost-effective options like expanded clay, shale slag and slate, can replace exfoliated vermiculite in lightweight concrete and plaster. In the agricultural sector, substitutes include bark, other plant materials, peat, perlite, sawdust and synthetic soil conditioner. For loose-fill fireproofing insulation, alternatives include fiberglass, perlite and slag wood. Foreign trade Trade data for vermiculite concentrate are not collected as a separate category by the U.S. Census Bureau but are included within the group “vermiculite, perlite and chlorites, unexpanded.” Domestic exports and imports for consumption of vermiculite were estimated based on information published by the U.S. Census Bureau and adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey based on average unit value, countries known to produce vermiculite and likely port destinations, to eliminate other minerals reported in the same group. An estimated 43 kt of vermiculite, valued at an estimated $13 million, were imported into the United States in 2025. The majority of these imports came from South Africa (54 percent) and Brazil (35 percent). The United States produces finer-grade vermiculite concentrate and relies on imports for coarser than medium-sized concentrate. Exports were estimated to be 5 kt of vermiculite valued at an estimated $1.9 million in 2025, with Canada being the leading destination (83 percent). International Global production of vermiculite was estimated to be 460 kt in 2025 compared with 470 kt in 2024. South Africa continued to be the leading vermiculite producing country followed, in descending order, by the United States and Brazil. Outlook The global production capacity of vermiculite consistently surpasses consumption. Notably, the production capacity for finer grades of vermiculite greatly exceeds that of coarser grades. Even though some consumers have turned to alternative materials in recent years, the global demand for vermiculite is expected to remain strong. Exploration and development of vermiculite deposits of all grades are anticipated to persist, while producers are likely to continue exploring innovative applications for vermiculite, particularly finer grades in high-value markets. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2026, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026—Vermiculite: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 204–205, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026.pdf. Zeolites by Wilfrid Balmer, Alcimex and Daniel T. Eyde, Cheto Partners Global market overview In 2025, the global natural zeolite market is projected to continue growing at about 6 percent annually to about $2.5 billion by 2030. In the United States, 2025 saw about 80 kt of zeolite produced, with animal feed and odor control being key markets. Europe remains focused on low-carbon building materials, while energy costs are pushing up prices. The U.S. market is consolidating, and globally, zeolites are expanding in water treatment, cement and specialized applications. Outside of the United States, there is a robust natural zeolite industry with a range of companies from small regional producers to manufacturers exporting worldwide but generally always focused on a single deposit. The value chain includes numerous distributors and increasingly sophisticated processing companies with a wide range of product offerings. Global production is staying around 1,300,000 Mt annually with the major producers being Slovakia (273 kt), China (150 kt), Indonesia (120 kt), Cuba (14.9 kt), the United States (80 kt) and Turkey (57.1 kt). However, these figures are largely underestimated and mainly incorporate agricultural and environmental applications. In many regions of the world, particularly in China and Eastern Europe, natural zeolites are primarily a raw material in the manufacture of cement. The quantities involved in this industry alone would be several million tonnes. In the U.S. Geological Survey statistics, cement applications are reported under pozzolan applications. Industry changes In 2025, seven companies operated nine zeolite mines in six states and produced an estimated 80 kt of natural zeolites. Though 80 kt of zeolites were reportedly produced in 2025, sales totaled an estimated 77 kt, up about 3.2 kt from 2024. Animal feeds at 46 percent and odor control applications at 12 percent were the two largest markets. The major producers in the United States are St. Cloud Mining Co., Zeotech, Bear River Zeolites, KMI Zeolites, Teague Mineral Products and UOP LLC. Kirkland Mining Products and Zeodorizer produce zeolitized volcanic ash products. In 2024, St. Cloud was acquired by Equalizer Inc., a distributor of bulk, feed, agricultural chemicals and petrochemical products, through four distribution terminals in Texas and Nebraska. It appears that St. Cloud has moved further along the value chain by acquiring its largest customer, Biomin, a distributor of feed supplements. St. Cloud has also qualified the ash and zeolite at the Ash Meadows deposit as natural pozzolans. They plan additional drilling to block out additional reserves of the high-purity ash to ensure an adequate reserve of both products is available. KMI Zeolites has closed its processing facility at Ash Meadows, CA and plans to use a toll facility being constructed in Pahrump, NV. Teague Minerals and Zeotech may also decide to sell their operations. Outside the United States, in September 2025, Blue Pacific Minerals in New Zealand announced the launch of an operating facility in Tokoroa to meet growing demand for its zeolite-based solutions, which enhance soil, plant and animal health.Prices Clinoptilolite remains the primary product, at more than 90 percent of U.S. production. Chabazite accounted for about 5 to 6 percent of production in 2025, with the remainder principally mordenite, phillipsite and ferrierite. Prices are generally negotiated and consequently, there are no published price quotes, though Bear River reports its average sales price per ton in the annual report of its parent company, US Antimony, and is a good benchmark for the industry. In 2025, Bear River produced 10.9 kt at an average sale price of $309/t for clinoptilolite products, up from $291.5/t on 10.1 kt in 2024. European producers Zeocem in Slovakia and Rota Mining in Turkey are the main European clinoptilolite producers. Zeocem is a leading European producer of natural zeolite products and has more than 60 years of experience processing natural materials. Its core business is mining and processing natural zeolite and manufacturing related products. Other strategic investments concern zeolite production dedicated to the construction industry, particularly a wide range of micronized zeolites. European producers have suffered from the sharp increase in energy costs over the past four years. This is reflected in the ex-works price, which has increased by an overall 40 percent. Additionally, the cost of freight, which has increased by almost 45 percent over five years also has a significant impact. With the exception of Zeocem, which is well developed in exports, and Rota Mining, whose location on the Mediterranean Sea opens the doors to the North African and Middle Eastern markets as well as European coastal areas, there is a contraction in sales for most other producers, with relative stagnation for Italian chabazite/phillipsite producers (Verdi, IZ, ATZ) and most European producing countries. Alcimex in France has opted for a range of high-end products by offering its own formulations with a high level of technical support for industry and elite sports fields. Imerys mines high-purity clinoptilolite zeolites from its Beli Plast operation in Bulgaria. The company mines and processes more than 30 different minerals from diverse deposits worldwide, combining its mineral resources with application know-how to create specialized solutions for its customers. Major markets Agriculture accounted for about 29 percent of market share globally, with natural zeolites used as soil conditioners and fertilizers to enhance nutrient retention and improve crop yields. Animal feed represented 23 percent of the market globally but nearly 46 percent of the U.S. market, driven by the inclusion of zeolites in livestock diets to improve digestion and feed efficiency. Feed lots and other large concentrations of animals are point sources of several effluents, odors and waste runoffs that can be mitigated by zeolites. There will be increasing regulatory pressure to mitigate the impact of these facilities. The water treatment segment is expected to grow at a rate of 6.4 percent over the next decade. Natural zeolites are valued for their ability to remove contaminants like heavy metals and ammonium from water due to their strong ion-exchange properties. The use of natural zeolites is increasingly widespread in Europe in water treatment. The European Committee for Standardization has established standard EN 16070, which imposes the characteristics of natural zeolites dedicated to human water consumption. Cement, pozzolans and concrete additives represent the largest application segment, constituting 55 percent of the global market, in which zeolites are incorporated into lightweight concrete and cement to enhance strength and thermal insulation. This is a developing market in the United States and will probably be a western regional market, as the available zeolite resources are in the western states and not always well located in regard to transportation. Other lesser markets include micronized zeolite, synthetic turf, odor and pollution control and nuclear applications. Outlook Interest in natural zeolites and their integration into building material formulations has been growing steadily over the past two decades, driven by economic constraints and the need to develop materials with a low carbon footprint and high durability. Today in Europe, maritime infrastructures integrate clinoptilolite-based concrete, reducing the penetration of chlorides into concrete exposed to seawater. Their use in road and hydraulic concrete has improved sulfate resistance and reduced plastic shrinkage. Restoration mortars based on chabazite/phillipsite are used on historical monuments, for their mineralogical compatibility and their ability to limit saline efflorescence and salt migration. In the case of activated concretes and geopolymers, micronized zeolite activated by alkaline solutions rapidly release aluminosilicate species, participating in the formation of sodium-alumina-silicate-hydrate (NASH) or calcium-alumina-silicate-hydrate (CASH) gels in geopolymers and activated concretes. The incorporation of natural zeolites, raw or calcined, densifies the matrix, reduces porosity and increases mechanical strength. Of note, Europe has followed a trajectory mainly focused on the technological and industrial development of the applied products unlike other countries like the United States and China, which are particularly active in academic research. This contrast can be explained by several factors: Strong economic constraints, particularly the high cost of energy in Europe, have led manufacturers to prioritize low-carbon solutions and optimize the use of local natural resources such as zeolites. A demanding environmental regulatory framework favors the integration of natural and ecological materials, because buildings are responsible for approximately 50 percent of resource extraction and consumption and more than 30 percent of the total waste produced each year in the European Union. The development of advanced technological process with, notably, the mastery of micronization and activation of natural zeolites. The positioning of European companies is therefore based on a pragmatic and innovative approach, where constraints have become drivers of development. This can be illustrated by the development of “low carbon” cements. The European Union aims for climate neutrality by 2050 with a net zero greenhouse-gas emissions economy. The cement industry alone accounts for 6 to 7 percent of global anthropogenic emissions. Therefore, the solution to the problem lies largely in the search for effective solutions to replace part of the clinker in portland cement with secondary components, while optimizing the granulometry and composition of the cement. These efforts have led to a modification of the European standard EN 197-1 for general-purpose cements, which introduces new types of composite cements, from type. These new types can contain from 6 to 80 percent of mineral additives, unlike traditional Portland (CEM I), which is limited to 5 percent. This development leaves a prominent place for natural zeolites. However, this is only possible thanks to the development of processes like micronization. Current processes make it possible to obtain median diameters between 3 and 5 µm.

Industrial Minerals review 2025

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