Industrial Minerals review 2024

Editors’ note: The editors thank those who make this annual issue possible. A special thank you goes out to Jim Norman, vice president at Tetra Tech Inc., member SME and Industrial Minerals Annual Review Editor; Jack Sackrider, geology manager at Westward Environmental Inc., member SME and Industrial Minerals &Aggregates Division (IM&AD) Technical Committee Chair; the IM&AD Technical Committee vice chairs, and all the authors of the individual commodity profiles. On behalf of Mining Engineering readers, the editors thank them. Additional notes: (1) Among the information sources cited in the articles are the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025 (https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/mineral-commodity-summaries). The USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries are published on an annual basis and are the earliest government publications to furnish estimates covering nonfuel mineral industry data. The data sheets contain information on the domestic industry structure, government programs, tariffs and five-year salient statistics for more than 90 individual minerals and materials. USGS Disclaimer: Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. (2) Throughout this review, measurements are expressed as metric units unless the author provided conversions. There is no doubt, if any existed, that the commercial minerals world has now moved into a new era of unprecedented challenges in the sourcing, mining, processing, trade and use of industrial minerals.Industrial (nonmetallic) minerals remain the often unsung workhorse of mineral commodities and specialist raw materials that frankly keep the world’s manufacturing industries ticking over, and everyday products we use in sound availability. They are also very much present among the so-called “critical minerals” necessary to advance cutting-edge developments in growing high-tech markets such as in energy transition: for example, lithium, rare earths, graphite and fluorspar. Indeed, in the United States during 2024, industrial minerals again accounted for the majority share of total mine production by value at $72.1 billion, or 54 percent, followed by metals, 25 percent, and coal, 21 percent, according to the latest data from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). But right now, “industry resilience” seems to be the rallying call, with industrial mineral producers and traders facing straitened times from market slowdowns; environmental regulations; decarbonization and other sustainability issues; pressure to diversify; and near-shore mineral sourcing, and, yes, geopolitics.The last few years have witnessed a series of geopolitical issues that have impacted and continue to impact international trade in industrial minerals. Above all, it has been the threat and implementation of recent trade tariffs between countries that have been most damaging in creating a potential trade war. U.S. trade tariff tumult unleashed The end of 2024 and the first quarter of 2025 saw perhaps the most dramatic episode of trade tariff threats and sanctioning, which have impacted mineral commodities trade between the United States and the rest of the world, especially China. Rare earths have always been a familiar stamping ground in this arena, but now many other minerals are in the mix. By the seventh week of the new U.S. administration, the trading world was steeling itself against the latest round of U.S. trade tariffs on March 4, brought to bear on Canada (25 percent), China (doubled to 20 percent) and Mexico (25 percent). Then on April 2, the industry was sent reeling by President Donald Trump’s sweeping “Liberation Day” announcement of so-called “reciprocal” tariff rises for all U.S. imports, which added 34 percent to existing 20 percent duties on all Chinese imports (Canada and Mexico import tariffs unchanged). The result was that some countries, particularly China, the European Union and Canada vowed to retaliate, thus fanning the flames for an impending trade war. Since then, there has been backpedaling, pausing and revision of certain U.S. tariffs between certain countries, but it continues to be a very fluid and uncertain situation, yet to be fully resolved. Suffice to say that markets and trade have been negatively impacted. For mineral producers, traders and consumers, it is an ongoing nightmare. Involved international traders, and crucially, U.S. consumers of these minerals are now busy assessing what the future may hold for the security and cost of maintaining their existing and planned mineral trade flows. Should the trade tariffs hold, then prices will certainly increase and impact U.S. consumers. Reality check: U.S. has >50 percent import dependency on 24 industrial minerals Leaving aside the rationale and debate over these tariffs, an analysis of the minerals and markets in the line of tariff fire is instructive in highlighting their importance to the U.S. (and world) economy, and indeed the vulnerability of and reliance on their limited sources. Acknowledging this point right off the bat was the Essential Minerals Association (EMA; the representative voice for U.S. industrial mineral producers) releasing a statement on March 3 urging the U.S. administration to “refrain from implementing tariffs on imports from Canada and Mexico” and seek alternative solutions. Figure 1: U.S. industrial mineral net import reliance, 2024. The EMA statement warned: “tariffs would cause prices to rise steeply across the economy … many companies would see an increase in costs in the tens of millions of dollars per year, if not worse. The tariffs, instead of strengthening the domestic mineral supply chain, would cause U.S. manufacturers to become more reliant on foreign sources, including from hostile nations.” So, which industrial minerals are key to the U.S. economy? The United States has a 100 percent net import reliance on nine industrial minerals, more than 50 percent on 15 industrial minerals, and 20 to 48 percent import dependency on a further eight minerals — so, 32 industrial minerals in total. Significantly, of these 32 minerals, 25 are sourced from Canada, China and Mexico, countries which are facing 20 to 25 percent import tariffs. These minerals are highlighted in Fig. 1, along with their respective import source countries and overall net import reliance as a percentage. Tariff-targeted countries’ supply to U.S.: Specific mineral analysis Figure 2 shows more detail on the specific industrial minerals sourced for U.S. consumption from Canada, China and Mexico: Whether they are defined as a “critical mineral.” Their overall U.S. net import reliance. Total import volume for 2024. The respective country’s import share. Their primary market applications in the United States. This may make sober reading for U.S. economists forecasting the fall-out for domestic manufacturing sectors from this latest round of U.S. trade tariffs. Of critical minerals, Canada supplies four, China eight, and Mexico two — quite a tally (10 different critical minerals in total). More examination reveals that these include critical minerals with considerable supply contributions from the tariff-targeted countries: Antimony oxide: China, 76 percent (other major sources: Belgium, 11 percent; Bolivia, 6 percent). Barite: China, 25 percent; Mexico, 14 percent (others: India, 40 percent; Morocco, 17 percent). Fluorspar: Mexico, 62 percent; China, 8 percent (others: Vietnam, 14 percent; South Africa, 9 percent). Graphite: China, 43 percent; Canada, 13 percent; Mexico, 13 percent (others: Mozambique, 13 percent). Rare earth compounds and metals: China, 70 percent (others: Malaysia, 13 percent; Japan, 6 percent; Estonia, 5 percent). Silicon carbide: China, 85 percent; Canada, 3 percent (others: Brazil, 4 percent). Titanium minerals: Canada, 13 percent (others: South Africa, 32 percent; Madagascar, 16 percent; Australia, 11 percent). Yttrium: China, 93 percent. Figure 2: Industrial minerals from Canada, China and Mexico consumed in the United States that have a greater than 20 percent net import reliance to meet demand. Moreover, just to complete the picture on all possibilities: Trump announced earlier this year that he might also consider imposing 100 percent tariffs on the countries referred to as the BRICS+ countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iran and United Arab Emirates). This would also then impact several of the other source countries for these critical and other minerals on which the United States has high import dependency: Brazil: silicon carbide, plus fused alumina, magnesia, bauxite. South Africa: fluorspar, chromite, plus zircon. Vietnam, which recently became a partner of BRICS, is a key source of fluorspar for the United States. “Noncritical” minerals also have significance It is also important to be reminded of the other industrial minerals from Canada, China and Mexico not officially designated (yet) as “critical,” though many U.S. manufacturing sectors strongly rely on these imports: Fused alumina: China, 64 percent, Canada 11 percent (others: Brazil, 7 percent; Austria, 5 percent). Bauxite: China, 80 percent estimated refractory grade (others: Guyana, Brazil). Magnesia Caustic calcined magnesia: China, 73 percent; Canada, 21 percent. Dead burned and fused magnesia: China, 70 percent (Brazil, 18 percent; Turkey, 3 percent). Magnesium hydroxide: Mexico, 59 percent (others: Netherlands, 14 percent; Israel, 13 percent; Japan, 5 percent). Mica Scrap and flake: China, 40 percent; Canada, 35 percent (others: India, 9 percent; Finland, 5 percent). Sheet: China, 79 percent (others: Brazil, 6 percent; India, 4 percent). Nepheline syenite: Canada, 99 percent. Potash: Canada, 79 percent (others: Russia, 11 percent; Belarus, 4 percent; Israel, 3 percent). Salt: Canada, 29 percent; Mexico, 14 percent (others: Chile, 27 percent; Egypt, 8 percent). Strontium: Mexico, 65 percent (others: Germany, 30 percent). These are all stand-out minerals much needed for U.S. consumer sectors. Fused alumina and bauxite are in high demand for refractory and abrasive manufacturing, with 75 percent fused alumina imported from China and Canada, and most refractory bauxite from China. Likewise, all U.S. demand for dead burned and fused magnesia essential for refractories must be imported, and mostly from China. Caustic calcined magnesia and potash (both from Canada) are essential to U.S. agrimarkets, with caustic calcined magnesia serving the dairy cattle market, and potash mainly for U.S. fertilizer production. Magnesium hydroxide from Mexico is used in a range of markets including chemicals, water treatment and flame retardants. Mica and salt use in the United States is also highly dependent on China and Canada (mica), and Canada and Mexico (salt). Salt markets are wide-ranging, but the northeast U.S. deicing market relies strongly on imports. Strontium supply from Mexico is used in ceramics, chemicals, glass, magnets, metallurgy and pigments.It should be said that it seems that certain minerals will not be subject to the reciprocal tariff — that is, those already subject to Section 232 tariffs — although some observers remain unclear on this. The official “Annex II” enumerates the following industrial minerals exempt “as ores, oxides and salts”: antimony, asbestos, barite, bauxite, chromite, fluorspar, fused alumina, graphite, iron oxides, lithium, magnesia, manganese, phosphate, potassium, rare earths, silicon carbide, strontium, titanium and yttrium. However, industrial minerals imported by the United States that appear not to be exempt include nepheline syenite (greater than 95 percent, Canada), garnet (48 percent, South Africa, Australia, India and China) and those minerals with U.S. import dependency of less than 40 percent: bromine, feldspar, perlite, salt, vermiculite and zircon. Impact on U.S. consuming markets The last column of the table highlights the main market applications for these minerals and will be seen to include some very important sectors essential to the U.S. economy. Many of these markets are intermediate manufacturing sectors that are imperative for ultimate end markets. Refractories, ceramics and abrasives, for example, are vital to help manufacture components used in defence and military uses, as well as the primary use of refractories in all plants making steel, metals, glass, cement, ceramics and petrochemicals. Regarding the rapidly evolving lithium-ion battery market, especially for electric-vehicle and municipal applications, fluorspar and graphite stand out as the critical minerals on which the United States relies 100 percent on imports from Canada, China and Mexico. There are ongoing projects in the United States in trying to develop domestic sources for graphite and fluorspar, but how soon they will come to fruition is unclear, and certainly not in time to ease these immediate import tariffs. If anything, perhaps this latest round of trade tariffs may provide a boost for such U.S. mineral development projects. For example, on March 20, Trump signed an executive order to drive U.S. mineral production, streamline permitting and enhance national security. “Minerals” covered by the order include critical minerals, uranium, copper, potash, gold, and any other element, compound or material as determined by the chair of the National Energy Dominance Council. An accompanying White House statement commented: “The United States currently imports a significant portion of its minerals from foreign countries, creating economic and security risks, despite possessing a vast supply of critical minerals. A strong domestic mineral production industry would ensure U.S. companies can compete globally without overly relying on foreign supply chains.” So, some, if belated, recognition of minerals’ importance. How the U.S. manufacturing sectors will absorb or pass on these cost increases for their required minerals is top of the agenda, as is the consideration of future exports to the United States by producing companies in Canada, China and Mexico. Perhaps, as has happened in the recent past, certain industries may be able to successfully lobby the U.S. government to exempt their minerals from the tariff list. Regarding potash, the significance of any tariff impact on this mineral and its market was at least recognized very swiftly. Just two days after the March 4 decree, a reduction of tariffs was announced on potash not already covered under the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA; signed in Trump’s first term) from 25 percent to 10 percent. U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Brooke Rollins described it as “… a critical step in helping farmers manage and secure key input costs at the height of planting season while reinforcing long-term agricultural trade relations.” Could this sentiment be applied across other mineral consuming markets? Meanwhile, this whole trade issue may also prompt U.S. (and other) industrial mineral consumers to start seeking alternative sources of mineral supply from nontariff-targeted countries, particularly near-shore, and even to consider switching to using alternative/recycled minerals from domestic sources. Challenges yes, but also opportunities. Let’s see. *Mike O’Driscoll is director and cofounder of IMFORMED Industrial Mineral Forums & Research Ltd, UK; organizing Fluorine Forum 2025, Baveno, Lake Maggiore, Oct. 22-24 and Salt Forum 2025, Abu Dhabi, Nov. 17-19; mike@imformed.com or visit www.imformed.com. Ball Clay by Dibyajyoti Behera, Ashapura Group of Industries Ball clay is a type of clay whose name is derived from its early extraction methods in 18th-century England, when it was dug by spade as cubes, which then became rounded during subsequent transport. It is strong yet flexible, can withstand high temperatures during firing and helps create smooth, even surfaces in ceramics. As demand for ceramic items rise due to the ceramics boom, so does the demand for ball clay. It is commercially extracted through openpit mining, followed by multiple processing steps, including refining, blending, forming and firing. Ball clay offers enhanced plasticity, excellent durability, high binding strength, low iron content, easy moldability and good drying properties. It is also a cost-effective, versatile, readily available and chemically stable product that improves the color and texture of finished goods. As a result, ball clay finds extensive applications across the construction, ceramics, foundry, paints and coatings, refractory and agriculture industries. Market size and growth The ball clay market size is estimated at $455.30 million in 2025 and is expected to reach $583.03 million by 2030, at a compound annual growth rate of 5.07 percent during the forecast period (2025 to 2030). The global ball clay market has been experiencing steady growth, driven by its extensive use in the ceramics industry, including applications in tiles, sanitary ware and tableware. Export and imports More than 91 countries contribute to the global import of ball clay. India is the largest importer with 5,119 import shipments, for a market share of 38 percent. Following India, Bangladesh is the next key player with 3,251 shipments and a 24 percent market share. Vietnam’s 1,504 shipments translates into an 11 percent market share. A total of 52 countries export ball clay globally. The leading suppliers are India, the United Kingdom and the United States. India tops the list with 3,394 shipments, which equates to a 22 percent market share. It is closely followed by the United Kingdom with 2,890 shipments, representing a 21 percent market share, and the United States with 2,832 shipments, for a 21 percent market share. Outlook The Asia Pacific and North American ball clay markets are experiencing growth driven by demand in the ceramics and construction sectors. The growing demand for lightweight and durable materials in the automotive and aerospace industries further supports market expansion. Advancements in mining technologies are improving extraction efficiency, enhancing product quality and reducing environmental impact. Additionally, the widespread adoption of ball clay in sanitary-ware manufacturing and the growing popularity of aesthetically appealing ceramic tiles are key trends shaping the region’s market dynamics. Key players Figure 1: Ball clay market size, 2025-2030. (Source: Mordor Intelligence) Leading ball clay market companies include Ashapura Group of Industries, Ashok Alco-Chem Ltd, Finore Minerals LLP, G&W Mineral Resources (Zimco Group (PTY) Ltd), Garg Minerals and Chemicals, Golcha Associated Exports LLP, Gujarat Mineral Development Corporation Ltd, Imerys S.A., JLD Minerals Private Ltd, Old Hickory Clay Co., Plainsman Clays Ltd and Sibelco. References Essential Minerals Association. Ball Clay. https://www.essentialminerals.org/mineral/ball-clay.Mordor Intelligence. Ball Clay Market - Growth, Trends, and Forecasts (2024–2029). https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/ball-clay-market.Volza Ball Clay Import Data, 2024, https://www.volza.com/p/ball-clay/import/#:~:text=Over%2091%20countries%20contribute%20to%20the%20global,a%20key%20player%20with%203%2C251%20shipments%2C%20securing Barite by John Newcastle, The Barytes Association Barite (or baryte) is the naturally occurring mineral form of barium sulfate (BaSO4). Its main properties are its high specific gravity (4.50 g/mL) and very low solubility; it is nontoxic, and chemically and physically unreactive. It is extracted by both surface and underground mining, followed by simple physical processing methods to produce correctly sized product free of extraneous materials and beneficiated to meet end-user specifications. Barite is the preferred weighting agent in fluids used during oil and natural-gas exploration and production (E&P) drilling, accounting for more than 70 percent of worldwide consumption. Other uses are in added-value applications including car components, electronics, television screens, rubber, glass, ceramics and paint, radiation shielding and medical applications (barium cocktails). Barite is supplied in a variety of forms and costs depending on the scarcity of certain grades as well as the amount of processing required. Filler applications command higher prices due to intense physical processing by grinding and micronizing, and there are further premiums for whiteness, brightness and yellowness. Being a relatively low-cost mineral as mined, logistics costs add significantly to the final landed costs in many markets: for example, the major trade lanes of China and India to the U.S. Gulf for processing of lumps and on to drilling rigs. Trucking, barging, loading, unloading, railing and shipping via dry bulk ocean vessels typically add more than 100 percent of the cost of mined and beneficiated lumps to arrive at the delivered powder cost. There are globally accepted minimum drilling grade specifications that are largely determined by the American Petroleum Institute (API) in committees. The committees are made up of technical experts from E&P and service companies. Customers may expand or modify API specifications based on unique needs. Typically, these extra requirements include low heavy metals for environmental disposal reasons, low iron (Fe) to prevent magnetic tool interference, and low carbonate content to avoid unwanted chemical interactions with some fluid formulations. The economics of barite are like those of many industrial minerals. Its final form is a precisely sized powder achieved by pulverizing and classifying naturally occurring lumps. The optimal landed cost is usually achieved by pulverizing (grinding) as close to the ultimate consumption point as possible, minimizing wasted packaging and avoiding double handling. Chemical- and filler-grade barite specifications are less standardized than drilling grade, but often require higher degrees of whiteness, high percentages of BaSO4 or very low levels of certain contaminants like strontium (Sr). Production and consumption The industrial (chemical and filler) grades of barite have enjoyed relatively steady gradual growth over recent decades. However, the more significant demand swings in barite are driven by variations in global drilling activity. Drilling demand is, unsurprisingly, traditionally a factor of oil and gas activity. Historically, rig count translated to barite demand, and although the variations still track that way, U.S. drilling has seen a shift in the ratios of tons of barite per rig. This is due to massive productivity gains and a greater percentage of horizontal drilling in shale plays — the so-called fracking boom. A better indicator of barite consumption than rig count is feet drilled. The United States is the largest consumer of barite in the world by far, followed by Saudi Arabia. There is no domestic sourcing of barite in Saudi Arabia, and the United States is an approximate 80 to 85 percent importer with only three companies mining and three companies processing native ore, all in Nevada.Resources of barite in Nevada are estimated at quite high levels, but the most economically viable deposits are in depletion. Many known resources are deep or remote. Finished product shipped from the Nevada mills in 2023 totaled 347 kt and although figures for 2024 are not yet available, the numbers are likely to be similar. The estimated U.S. demand in 2024 of 2.24 Mt was sourced mostly in India, China Morocco and Mexico. No new miners or grinders have appeared in Nevada since Baker Hughes Co. sold its processing assets to I-80 Gold for water and rail access, and ceased mining. Figure 1 shows U.S. barite imports in 2024. The Mexican-sourced barite mostly comes to West Texas and New Mexico by rail or truck in powder or lumps. Barite from China, India and Laos typically ships in lump form via dry bulk ocean vessels, typically in Panamax-sized cargoes of 58 to 75 kt. Moroccan cargoes more often arrive in 35- to 45-kt cargoes. The destination ports are in Louisiana and Texas at or near where mills are located. Most mills are rail- or barge-served, allowing economical inland bulk freight from there to the drilling basins. The demise of most U.S. Gulf offshore drilling has led to an overcapacity of grinding assets in the New Orleans to Brownsville arc. Although more U.S. grinding capacity is not mathematically needed to serve the total market, location and logistics are critical factors. As a result, in 2024 two new grinding mills began operation in the Permian Basin of West Texas. One is in Pecos and the other in nearby Monahans. They are processing Mexican crude lump barite as well as some barite imported through Corpus Christi and railed to the mill.Another trend since 2022 has been grade density. Prior to 2006, API had one official density spec: 4.20 g/mL, minimum. Operators and producers jointly realized that this universal requirement was at times overkill, and leading to an accelerated reserve depletion in Nevada and globally. The industry and API eventually adopted an optional 4.10 g/mL standard for many applications. As even simpler and cheaper mud systems have evolved in West Texas, the percentage of mud systems using sub-4.10 g/mL has grown. Densities of 3.90 g/mL barite may account for half or more of Permian activity. However, Saudi Arabian drilling continues to have the toughest barite specifications in the world, sticking to API 4.20 g/mL grade density, super low U.S. offshore mercury and cadmium requirements, and even a 0.3 percent by weight iron (Fe), achievable rarely and only from India or Laos. Recently, Saudi Arabian Oil Co. (Aramco) has made some accommodations on density in certain applications but officially sees this as more an exception than the rule. Outlook 2025 is going to be an interesting year in barite. Most industry followers see a flat demand but tightening supply. Chinese exports have drawn down very significantly in the last four to five years. This is partly due to significant mine closures, environmental restrictions and stronger domestic demand for drilling and chemical/fillers. India had been rising to fill the void, but mid-2024 saw a series of challenges begin in the Andhra Pradesh state government Mangampet Mine and its owner, the Andhra Pradsesh Mine Development Co. (APMDC). The latest government tender cum auction for export quantities releases significantly less A-Grade (4.25 g/mL minimum) ore and limited 4.10 g/mL B-Grade. The tender auction process seeks to maximize prices that Indian processors or exporters are willing to pay. The auction, originally scheduled for January 2025, has been postponed several times. Figure 1: 2024 U.S. barite imports. Laos is a relatively new source with very high-density barite ore needing no beneficiation, like China 30 years ago. Development has grown steadily but slowly, but only limited volumes are currently available.Mexico is an anomaly in that barite for domestic drilling in the southern Bay of Campeche depends on imports, with mine production in the north going to Mexican land drilling and exports to the United States. Much of the barite produced is sub-4.00 g/mL. Volumes exported have grown significantly over the last three years, but there is minimal potential for further near-term growth in exports.Morocco has resources that many believe still have upside potential. An element of uncertainty in 2025 is that of U.S. tariffs. China and Mexico are likely to be affected by the tariffs. At this writing, Chinese-origin barite has had 20 percent tariffs imposed, and since barite is a United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA) commodity, Mexican barite is still moving without the threatened 25 percent tariff. It is unclear how long these rules will remain and whether the future potential tariffs will include other countries like India. Figure 2: Monthly average prices of unground lump barite from China, Indiaand Morocco (1.00 = the October 2013 average FOB price of $130/t;0.95 = 5 percent lower; 1.05 = 5 percent higher). Fastmarkets IM publishes monthly average prices of unground lump barite meeting API specifications with specific gravity of 4.2 g/mL from the three leading exporting countries (Fig. 2) . Conclusion Barring an unforeseen drop in demand, the market ahead should produce great opportunities for entrepreneurs and investors in a commodity that has been anything but exciting since the mid-1990s. Bauxite and Alumina by Adam M. Merrill, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production During 2024, one alumina refinery produced alumina from imported bauxite in the United States. The 1.2-Mt/a refinery in Gramercy, LA, owned by Atlantic Alumina Co. LLC, produced alumina mostly for use in aluminum smelters, but also produced chemical-grade alumina. The United States is 100 percent net import reliant for metallurgical-grade bauxite. Small amounts of bauxite and bauxitic clays are produced in Alabama, Arkansas and Georgia for nonmetallurgical uses. Consumption and end uses In 2024, total domestic consumption of bauxite (in crude dry equivalents) was estimated to be 1.8 Mt, 12 percent less than in 2023. Of this, approximately 76 percent was consumed to produce alumina or alumina hydroxide, compared with 78 percent in the prior year. The remainder was used to produce abrasives, cement, chemicals, proppants, refractories and as a slag adjuster in steel mills. Total domestic consumption of alumina by the aluminum industry was estimated to be 1.4 Mt in 2024, 10 percent less than in 2023. Approximately 687 kt of alumina was consumed by other industries in the United States in 2024, 42 percent more than in 2023. Other uses of alumina included abrasives, cement, ceramics and chemicals. Foreign trade Bauxite. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, metallurgical-grade bauxite (crude dry) imports totaled 2.08 Mt in 2024, 13 percent less than in 2023. In 2024, the principal sources of metallurgical-grade bauxite were Jamaica (81 percent) and Turkey (17 percent). Imports of refractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2024 totaled 121 kt, 4 percent more than in 2023. China (53 percent) and Guyana (45 percent) were the principal sources of refractory-grade calcined bauxite imports. Imports of nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2024 totaled 367 kt, 13 percent more than in 2023. Australia (67 percent) and Guyana (27 percent) were the principal sources of nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite. Alumina. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, alumina imports totaled 1.34 Mt in 2024, compared with 1.36 Mt in 2023. Brazil (72 percent) and Jamaica (8 percent) were the leading sources of imported alumina. Exports of alumina in 2024 totaled 146 kt, 5 percent more than in 2023. The leading destinations of exported alumina were Mexico (26 percent), China including Hong Kong (20 percent), and Canada (15 percent). Prices According to the U.S. Census Bureau, values for imported bauxite varied depending on the source and grade. Average unit values on a free-alongside-ship (FAS) basis for crude dry bauxite imported to the United States from major suppliers in 2024 were $31/t from Jamaica (a 4 percent decrease from 2023) and $55/t from Turkey (double the 2023 amount); for imported refractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2024 were $441/t from China (4 percent increase) and $262/t from Guyana (26 percent decrease); and for imported nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite in 2024 were $53/t from Australia (13 percent increase) and $190/t from Guyana (34 percent decrease). The average unit value, on an FAS basis, of alumina imports to the United States in 2024 was $579/t, 21 percent more than in 2023, while the value of alumina exports in 2024 was $3,960/t, 26 percent more than in 2023. Based on cargo sizes, export destinations and prices, it is assumed that most of the alumina exports in 2023 and 2024 were specialty grade alumina instead of smelter-grade alumina. Outlook Consumption of smelter-grade alumina in the United States was expected to remain static as no primary aluminum smelter restarts have been announced for 2025. Consumption of refractory-grade calcined bauxite is largely dependent upon steel production. The World Steel Association’s short-term outlook anticipates domestic steel demand to increase slightly (by 2 percent) in 2025, and it is expected that consumption of refractory-grade calcined bauxite will follow this trend.Consumption of alumina and nonrefractory-grade calcined bauxite is expected to follow the general growth of the construction, chemical, manufacturing and petroleum industries, which is projected to increase slightly (by 2.2 percent) in 2025. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Bauxite and Alumina: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 42–43, https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2025World Steel Association, 2024, World Steel short range outlook October 2024: Brussels, Belgium, World Steel Association press release, Oct. 14, https://worldsteel.org/media/press-releases/2024/worldsteel-short-range-outlook-october-2024/International Monetary Fund, 2024, October 2024 World economic outlook: Washington, D.C., International Monetary Fund, Oct. 22, 156 pp., https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/WEO/2024/October/English/text.ashx Bentonite by Kristi J. Simmons, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Bentonite, a clay primarily consisting of smectite minerals (usually montmorillonite) with minor amounts of feldspar, biotite and quartz, is formed from the alteration of volcanic ash., First discovered in the late 19th century near Fort Benton, MT, bentonite is often called the “clay of a thousand uses.” The physical and chemical properties of bentonite make it a highly absorbent and reactive material, which is useful in a range of industries including agriculture, construction, cosmetics, drilling, pet care and environmental remediation. The bentonites used for industrial purposes predominantly consist of sodium montmorillonite or calcium montmorillonite. Sodium montmorillonite, also referred to as swelling bentonite, is predominantly produced in western states and can absorb several times its weight in water. Calcium montmorillonite, also referred to as non-swelling bentonite, is mostly produced in southern states. Bentonite, typically found in shallow deposits over expansive land areas, is primarily mined using openpit techniques. This versatile clay is found in a variety of colors including tan, gray-blue, olive, brown and white. Production In 2024, domestic bentonite production (the quantity sold or used by producers) was estimated to have increased by 10 percent to 4.8 Mt compared with 4.36 Mt in 2023. During the past 25 years, U.S. bentonite production fluctuated between a low of 3.65 Mt in 2009 to an all-time high of 4.99 Mt in 2011. In 2024, nonswelling and (or) swelling bentonite was produced in the following states, in alphabetical order: Alabama, Arizona, California, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Texas, Utah and Wyoming. Swelling bentonite comprised an estimated 97 percent of all domestically produced bentonite. An estimated 94 percent of swelling bentonite was produced in Wyoming, while Alabama and Mississippi, as in past years, led in the production of domestic nonswelling bentonite. Bentonite is widely available in many countries around the world. In 2024, global bentonite production was estimated to be 21 Mt, compared with 20.3 Mt in 2023, with production from 50 countries. The United States continues to be the global leader in the production of bentonite, followed, in descending order, by India (estimated 3.7 Mt), Turkey (estimated 2.5 Mt) and China (estimated 2.1 Mt). Consumption Pet-waste absorbents (48 percent of sales) and drilling mud (23 percent) were estimated to be the leading domestic markets for bentonite in 2024. Bentonite was also sold for the manufacturing of adhesives, animal food, filler and extender applications, foundry sand, miscellaneous civil engineering applications, pelletizing (iron ore) and waterproofing. Exported bentonite had similar uses as domestic bentonite. Prices The average unit value of bentonite in 2024 was estimated to be $99/t compared with $102/t in 2023. That of exported bentonite was $257/t in 2024, compared with $237/t in 2023, and that of imported bentonite was $347/t in 2024, a decrease compared with $441/t in 2023. Average unit values for exports and imports fluctuate more than the average unit value of domestic production owing to the influence of small, high-value shipments. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, bentonite exports decreased to 748 kt, valued at $192 million, in 2024 compared with 785 kt, valued at $186 million, in 2023. The leading destinations for exports of bentonite in 2024 were Canada (49 percent), Japan (15 percent) and Mexico (9 percent). Lesser amounts were shipped to 73 other countries. Bentonite imports more than doubled in quantity to 48.6 kt valued at $16.9 million in 2024 compared with 21.7 kt valued at $9.57 million in 2023. Canada (38 percent), Mexico (28 percent) and Turkey (20 percent) were the leading sources of bentonite imports while 20 other countries provided lesser amounts in 2024. Outlook Bentonite’s diverse applications ensure it remains a mature and stable industry. The trend toward sustainability and the use of eco-friendly products, such as bentonite, will sustain the demand for bentonite. Pet-waste absorbents and drilling muds are expected to remain the leading uses of bentonite, continuing to influence its demand. The growing pet industry may result in increased consumption of bentonite for pet-waste absorbents. Additionally, bentonite production will be influenced by the natural-gas and petroleum well drilling industries, although this sector has a greater level of fluctuation compared to the pet-care industry. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Clays: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 60–61, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025Clays Statistics. Historical Statistics for Mineral and Material Commodities in the United States, Data Series 140 (last modification Jan. 29, 2024) Cement by A.K. Hatfield, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Portland, blended and masonry cement (cement) are construction materials that, when mixed with water, serve as the binder in concrete and most mortars. Cement contributes all of concrete’s compressional strength, despite only comprising about 13 percent of its content by weight. Cements are made from a material called clinker, which is finely ground into a powder and mixed with a small amount of gypsum and potentially supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) to make cement. Clinker is produced from a precise combination of calcareous, aluminous, ferrous and siliceous materials, which are transformed through pyroprocessing of the requisite materials in a rotary kiln. Production In 2024, production of cement in the United States, excluding Puerto Rico, was estimated to be 86 Mt, a 4.4 percent decrease from an estimated 90 Mt in 2023. Production in 2024 was 13 percent lower than the record of 99.3 Mt set in 2005 (Fig. 1). Total world cement production in 2024 was estimated to be 4 Gt, a slight decrease from an estimated 4.1 Gt in 2023. China (1,900 Mt), India (450 Mt), Vietnam (110 Mt), the United States (86 Mt) and Turkey (82 Mt) continued to be the leading producers in 2024. The United States manufactured about 2 percent of cement produced worldwide. In 2024, an upgrade and capacity expansion of a cement plant in Wyoming was announced and work progressed on plans to increase the capacity of cement plants in Missouri and Texas. Also in 2024, a cement plant in Indiana was repurposed into a slag-grinding facility and construction of a new slag cement facility in Texas continued. However, in 2022 and 2023 cement plant closures were announced at cement plants in California, Maine and New York; in 2024, the plant in Maine transitioned to a distribution center for imported material. Consumption Domestic cement consumption in 2024, as measured by sales to final customers, was estimated to have decreased by 6.3 percent to 104 Mt from 111 Mt in 2023 but was 19 percent lower than the 2005 record consumption of 127.9 Mt. The difference between consumption and domestic production in 2024 was met, in part, by imports, although total imports of hydraulic cement and clinker in 2024 were 5.4 percent less than the amount reported in 2023. Over the past 10 years, imports increased from 8.3 Mt in 2014 to 25 Mt in 2024, but imports in 2024 were still well below the record of 35.6 Mt set in 2006. The leading cement-consuming states continued to be Texas, California and Florida, in descending order by tonnage. The major end uses for cement in the United States are, in descending order by estimated market share, ready-mixed concrete, concrete product manufacturers, contractors and other customer types such as building material dealers, government, mining, oil well drilling, waste stabilization and (or) unspecified uses. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, imports of cement and clinker by the United States, including Puerto Rico, in 2024 were 25 Mt, compared with 26.5 Mt in 2023. In 2024, Turkey (29 percent), Canada (19 percent), Vietnam (17 percent), Greece (7 percent) and Mexico (5 percent) supplied the majority of U.S. cement imports, with the remainder coming from several other countries. Exports of cement were 939 kt, a slight increase from 2023. Canada (82 percent), Mexico (6 percent) and the Bahamas (4 percent) received the majority of U.S. cement exports, with the remainder going to several other countries and localities. Prices The average mill net value (price) of cement depends on application, quality, quantity purchased, source and type, and therefore encompasses a range of prices and was estimated to be $160/t in 2024. In recent years, increased prices have been partially attributed to increased costs of production, having increased from $125/t in 2020. During 2024, the overall estimated value of sales increased to a record-high $17 billion. Environmental issues Large quantities of raw materials (mainly carbonate rocks, especially limestone) and fuels are burned at high temperatures to make clinker, resulting in emissions of large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) and potentially significant emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, mercury and some other metals, volatile organic carbon compounds and particulates. Increasingly, these emissions are being stringently regulated. The cement industry is one of the leading industrial emitters of CO2, a greenhouse gas.In April 2024, the Connecticut Department of Transportation approved the use of portland-limestone cement (PLC); PLC has become widely accepted by various authorities and has been approved for use by all 50 states and the District of Columbia. In 2024, blended cement accounted for 59 percent of total cement shipments and 97 percent of the blended shipments were estimated to be PLC (type IL). Figure 1: U.S. clinker production, cement production, and cement consumption, 1960–2024. Additional company announcements aligned with sustainability and decarbonization efforts included the increased or enhanced use of alternative fuels and materials, carbon capture, utilization and storage projects, improved efficiency, renewable energy projects, and other innovations. Development of other low-carbon and (or) new blended cement product lines utilizing various SCMs, and innovative techniques, also progressed, including funding announcements to build two new novel cement manufacturing facilities. Outlook The decrease in reported consumption of cement in 2024 likely resulted from decreased construction starts of new housing units, as well as increased costs for energy, material and service inputs. Regulators continued to implement new measures designed to aid industry sustainability efforts, and several cement producers were awarded government funding for decarbonization initiatives. Additionally, funding from the November 2021 passage of the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law continued to be allocated to projects moving forward in each state. Imports are likely to continue to augment domestic cement supply to counteract reduced domestic production capacity resulting from kilns being idled owing to environmental concerns. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Cement: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 54–55, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025Hatfield, A.K., 2025, Cement in December 2024: U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Industry Surveys, March, 1 p. (Accessed March 10, 2025, https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/s3fs-public/media/files/mis-202412-cemen.pdf.) Chromium by Y. Rama Murthy, Research and Development Division, Tata Steel Ltd. Chrome metal is the backbone of the steel and stainless-steel industry. The basic ore — metallurgical-grade chromite — is mined and concentrated in a beneficiation plant. The concentrated ore is smelted/reduced in a submerged arc furnace to different metallurgical grades: high-carbon (HC), low-carbon (LC) and medium-carbon (MC) ferrochrome. Nearly 80 percent of the ferrochrome is used to produce stainless steel, special steels and alloys. Low-carbon and medium-carbon ferrochrome is used in the manufacture of special steels. Low-carbon ferrochrome (LC-Fe-Cr), with carbon content below 0.5 percent, is a ferroalloy used to regulate the ratio of chromium in steel production. It imparts the property to withstand extremely high temperatures and corrosive atmosphere. High-carbon ferrochrome is widely used as a raw material for stainless-steel production. High-carbon ferrochrome, with 60 to 70 percent chromium (Cr) content and 1 to 3 percent silicon (Si) content, is used as an alloying agent in ball-bearing steel (0.5 to 1.45 percent Cr), tool steel, mold steel (5 to 12 percent Cr) and high-speed steel (3.8 to 4.4 percent) improving the steel’s hardenability, wear resistance and hardness. Medium-carbon ferrochrome is used to produce medium- and low-carbon structural steels, carburizing steel and in the manufacture of gears, high-pressure blower blades and more. Micro-carbon ferrochrome is used in the production of stainless steel, acid-resistant steel, heat-resistant steel and electrical heating alloys. Noble ferroalloys are one of the vital additive inputs required to produce special steel. These ferroalloys are used in small quantities and are expensive compared to bulk ferroalloys. They include ferrovanadium, ferrotitanium, ferronickel, ferromolybdenum, ferrotungsten and ferroniobium. These alloys are generally used in turbine engines, power plants, furnaces and all pollution control equipment. One of the most common alloys of chrome is chrome-nickel (CrNi) superalloy, also known as nichrome. Superalloys can withstand temperatures higher than 1,400 °C. This superalloy is manufactured using pure (99.5 percent) chrome metal. Chromium-containing superalloys can be split into four major groups: (1) high-performance alloys, (2) heat-resistant alloys, (3) corrosion-resistant alloys and (4) electronic alloys and soft magnetics. Apart from macro applications for chrome metal, there are also micro-level applications such as magnetic memory media, photo masks and integrated circuits. Figure 1: Chrome ore resources, reserves and production in 2024. (Source: Investingnews.com) (a) Chromite reserves by country. (Source: ICDA, 2024) (b) Chrome ore world production. (c) Ferrochrome world production. Production and consumption South Africa remains the major global producer and supplier of chrome ore, followed by Turkey, Kazakhstan, India and Finland. The mine productions of the top five countries were: South Africa, estimated 21 Mt; Turkey, estimated 8 Mt; Kazakhstan, estimated 6.5 Mt; India, 4.1 Mt; and Finland, 1.9 Mt. Globally, chromium production grew 1.8 Mt in 2024 to an estimated 47 Mt. South Africa followed by Kazakhstan and India were the leading suppliers of ferrochrome. The supply of Reef Upper Group 2 (UG2) chromite, in addition to traditionally mined chrome ore, has changed the structure of the ferrochrome industry. Mining of chrome ore as well as ferrochrome production has seen a decreasing trend due to a sluggish market and cost pressures. The United States alone consumed an estimated 4 percent of world chromite ore for various applications, from raw chromite ore to chromium chemicals to chromium metal. Ferrochromium was consumed in the production of stainless steel and heat-resistant steel. Chromium material consumption decreased by 44 percent in 2023. Markets, prices, economics and new applications Demand for chromium driven by the automotive industry is increasing compared to construction and other industries that utilize it in various applications. Globally, the automotive and aerospace sectors are regarded as the primary drivers of growth for chromium industry. Use of chrome in new sectors like electric vehicles is expected to rise significantly in the future. At present, demand for chromium in these industries is strengthened by the development of new materials with low density, high-strength alloys and coatings, which enhance fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. The advent of better metallurgical technology and the discovery of new chromium-containing alloys have expanded their applications across various industries. Masteel achieved the production of high-chromium P91 steel grade (hard-to-weld steel grade, extensively alloyed with molybdenum and chromium to preserve mechanical resistance at high temperatures) in continuously cast blooms. Trends and outlook Continued demand for stainless steel in the construction, automotive and other industries is expected to be a key driver of chromite mining and chromium production and consumption. Chrome ore production has seen an increasing trend globally due to high prices and increased demand from China, and the Europe and Middle East regions’ improved demand for local smelters, which led to an increase in demand for the ore. Ferrochrome production is picking up despite power-supply issues and slower markets due to the automotive and aerospace sectors, which are regarded as the primary drivers of growth. Europe’s chromium pricing trends are deeply affected by its stringent environmental regulations and the push toward sustainable and recycled materials. References International Chromium Development Association (ICDA) https://www.icdacr.com/about-chrome/ferrochromeInvestingnews.com, 2024, Top 5 Chromium-producing Countries (updated 2024).U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2024. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-chromium.pdfDanieli Group, 2024, https://www.danieli.com/en/news-media/news/1000-mm-round-blooms-high-chromium-p91-steel-produced-danieli-caster_37_873.htm#newsfoldIMARC Group, 2024, Chromium Pricing Report 2024, https://www.imarcgroup.com/chromium-pricing-reportIndian Minerals Yearbook, 2020 (Part II: Metals & Alloys) 59th ed. Ferroalloys, Oct. 21 Common Clay and Shale by Dibyajyoti Behera, Ashapura Group of Industries Clay is a term used to loosely define a group of hydrous aluminum-silicate minerals. Clay sediment is the fine-grained earthy material that results from natural chemical weathering and hydrothermal rock alteration. Clay sediments are often characterized by high plasticity, or workability, that is useful for the manufacture of structural clay products such as brick and tile as well as pottery. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) classifies clays mined in the United States into six categories: ball clay, bentonite, common clay, fire clay, fuller’s earth and kaolin. In total, the United States produced around 26 Mt of these clays, including common clay and shale, with an estimated value of $1.7 billion. In 2019, common clay and shale made up 49 percent of the total clay production by volume but contributed only 12 percent of the overall value. By 2024, the United States had exported approximately 700 kt of bentonite and 1.6 Mt of kaolin, reflecting a modest decline from previous years. Shale and shale gas Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay and silt-sized particles. Shales contain roughly 95 percent of the organic matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale. Shale gas refers to the methane trapped within these shale formations. Thus, shale acts as both the source and reservoir rock for extracting shale gas through hydraulic fracturing. Outlook The shale gas market size has grown rapidly in recent years. It is forecast to grow from $87.64 billion in 2024 to $100.44 billion in 2025 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 14.6 percent. The rapid pace of advancements in shale gas exploration and drilling technologies is boosting production volumes and reducing production costs, thereby contributing to market growth. Shale gas enhances energy security by offering a reliable domestic or regional energy source. Countries with significant shale gas reserves can reduce their reliance on imported fossil fuels, minimizing exposure to geopolitical risks and potential supply-chain disruptions. Key players The global industrial common clay market is led by players including Imerys SA, KaMin LLC, BASF SE, Sibelco, Thiele Kaolin Co., Ashapura Group, LB Minerals Ltd., EP Minerals LLC, I-Minerals Inc., Active Minerals International LLC, Quarzwerke Group, Lhoist Group, SCR-Sibelco NV, Old Hickory Clay Co., Daleco Resources Corp., Wyo-Ben Inc., Bentonite Performance Minerals LLC, Burgess Pigment Co. and Ashapura Minechem Ltd. In the case of shale gas, Asia-Pacific was the largest region in the shale gas market in 2024. North America was the second largest, with Royal Shell PLC, Exxon Mobil Corp. and PetroChina Co. Ltd. Figure 1: Common clay production (sold or used) in the United States, 2020-2024. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey) References Virginia Department of Energy, 2023, Clay Materials https://www.energy.virginia.gov/geology/claymaterials.shtmlU.S. Geological Survey, 2021, Minerals Yearbook, 2019: Clay and Shale. https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol1/2019/myb1-2019-clay-shale.pdfWikipedia, n.d., Shale https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShaleZion Market Research, 2023, Industrial Clay Market Size and Forecast https://www.zionmarketresearch.com/report/industrial-clay-market-sizeThe Business Research Company, 2024, Shale Gas Global Market Report https://www.thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/shale-gas-global-market-report Construction Aggregates by Venkata Aneesh Kona, Vulcan Materials Co. Demand for sand, gravel and crushed stone is constant for urban and highway projects. Aggregates include coarse- to medium-grained materials vital to concrete and asphalt industries. In 2024, the industry faced complex demands, regulations and market trends. Production and market overview Construction aggregates are mined and crushed from various rock types, including limestone and granite. Some types, like shell and slate, generally do not meet specifications for plain cement concrete (PCC) and asphalt. Recycled materials contributed minimally to the total aggregates supply in 2024.In 2024, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reported aggregates production from 3,500 quarries and more than 6,500 sand and gravel pits. Top states for crushed stone included Texas and Florida. The USGS estimated 1.5 Gt of crushed stone were produced, valued at more than $26 billion — a 6 percent decrease in production but an 8 percent increase in value from 2023 (Fig. 1). Regulatory landscape and testing Aggregates must meet various state, federal and local standards. Physical testing, defined by ASTM International and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), ensures compliance. Agencies like the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) have unique project-specific standards, such as the USACE “drop test” for armor stone. Railroad specifications also exist for ballast and traction sand. Various tests determine aggregate suitability. The Los Angeles Abrasion (LA) test evaluates degradation. Sulfate soundness tests assess weathering. Skid resistance requires noncarbonate aggregates. The Micro-Deval test is gaining popularity. State variations exist: for example, New York requires a stringent 10-cycle magnesium sulfate test. Test results influence marketability; approved source status is an advantage. Crushed stone, sand and gravel The aggregates market serves applications from low-grade fill to high-grade PCC and asphalt. It is predominantly local due to transportation costs, with trucks handling about 85 percent of deliveries. The economical haul distance is 56 to 63 km, but urban congestion impacts freight rates. Most producers rely on contract haulers. Geology dictates regional aggregates use. California’s alluvial fans supply sand and gravel, while glacial deposits are mined in the Midwest. Crushed stone is preferred over crushed gravel for consistent performance in PCC and asphalt. Natural sand is favored over manufactured, but meeting ASTM C-33 specifications is difficult. In 2024, U.S. sand and gravel production declined 8 percent to 890 Mt, valued at more than $12 billion, primarily for PCC use. Recycling and substitutes Recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) and recycled concrete are increasingly used for base materials. However, they do not meet state specifications for approved PCC or asphalt mixes. Recycling is a small percentage of total aggregates consumption. Substitutes like iron slag present quality concerns. Asphalt producers recycle roofing shingles. Blending RAP with washed concrete-grade sand balances fines, increasing demand for washed sand. Other recycled materials like crushed glass are used. Meeting standards is the main challenge. Health and safety The U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) actively enforces safety regulations. Crystalline silica is a key concern due to widespread quartz (SiO2). In 2024, MSHA finalized a rule limiting miners’ respirable crystalline silica exposure to50 µg/m3. Another 2024 regulation requires surface mines to implement written safety programs for mobile equipment hazards. MSHA prioritized training and safety alerts. Figure 1: Aggregates production 2020-2024 (data in million metric tons). Transportation and market reach Trucking accounts for 85 percent of aggregates transport. The 56-to-63-km cost-effective trucking rule is strained by urban congestion. Rail and barge transports offer alternatives, but accessibility is limited. Strategic facility placement reduces costs. Rail offers lower rates but requires sidings. Barge and ship transport are cost effective but need navigable waters. Unloading costs can increase final costs. Innovation and sustainability The industry embraces innovation for efficiency and sustainability. Autonomous hauling and increased use of recycled materials are rising. Artificial intelligence (AI) transforms quarry operations into data-driven systems, providing real-time insights and optimizing resource allocation. AI guides decision-making for safer, more efficient workflows. Figure 2: 2024 Construction Materials Index (CMI) versus Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) and S&P 500. (Source: S&P Capital IQ) Challenges and opportunities The aggregates industry faces public opposition, leading to permit denials. Companies employ environmental managers and host open houses to educate the public. Despite progress on environmental concerns, truck traffic remains a significant challenge. Figure 3: National impact of the aggregates industry (conservative). (Source: Phoenix Center, The Economic Impact of the Natural Aggregates Industry: A National, State, and County Analysis). Acquisitions In 2024, significant quarry acquisitions reflected consolidation. Arcosa acquired Stavola. Martin Marietta purchased 20 aggregate operations from Blue Water Industries. CRH acquired BoDean Co. and Ary Corp. Vulcan Materials acquired Whitaker Contractor and Wake Stone Corp. Granite Construction agreed to acquire Dickerson & Bowen. Summit Materials agreed to be acquired by Quikrete Holdings Inc. Metso acquired Diamond Z and Screen Machine Industries. Outlook The industry closed 2024 with strong demand but faced weather and regulatory pressures. 2025 brings cautious optimism for continued strength, driven by improved interest rates and merger & acquisition (M&A) integration. Uncertainty remains regarding funding and pricing. Growth projections are modest, with ongoing permitting, zoning and environmental hurdles. Material shortages, due to urban land constraints, will likely push new quarries farther from cities, increasing regional prices via higher transport costs. The future of infrastructure funding after the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) is a key question. Major metropolitan areas like Atlanta and Dallas–Fort Worth will continue to drive demand. Conclusion The aggregates industry is evolving. Future success relies on collaboration, innovation and sustainability. Stakeholders must prioritize safety, public perception and new technologies. A key concern for 2025 is sustained pricing momentum. Fortunately, all three primary end markets show favorable conditions: Infrastructure: The IIJA continues robust demand, with only 20 percent of funds spent as of April 2024, extending demand beyond the program’s expiration,Residential: Tight housing supply and expected interest rate declines boost outlook.Nonresidential: Some leaders see stabilization or growth in 2025. Producers should prepare for regional supply challenges, monitor regulatory changes and track evolving demand. Figure 2 shows how the Construction Materials Index (CMI) compares against the Dow Jones Industrial Average and S&P 500. The CMI includes Arcosa Inc., Buzzi S.p.A., CEMEX S.A.B. de C.V., Construction Partners Inc., Eagle Materials Inc., GCC S.A.B. de C.V., Granite Construction Inc., Heidelberg Materials AG, Holcim Ltd., Knife River Corp., Martin Marietta Materials Inc., Summit Materials Inc., The Monarch Cement Co., Titan Cement International S.A. and Vulcan Materials Co. Figure 3 shows the economic impact of the aggregates industry. Diatomite by R.D. Crangle Jr., National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Diatomite is a chalk-like, soft, friable, very fine-grained, siliceous sedimentary rock. Typically light in color (white if pure, commonly buff to gray in situ), diatomite is also very finely porous, very low in density and essentially chemically inert. Diatomaceous earth is a common alternate name, but the term is more appropriate for unconsolidated or less lithified rock of the same origin. Diatomite deposits accumulate in oceans or fresh waters from the cell walls of diatoms, composed of amorphous hydrous silica. Diatoms are microscopic, single-celled organisms, often appearing as colonial aquatic plants (algae). Diatom cells contain an elaborate internal siliceous skeleton. More than 10,000 living diatom species have been identified, in addition to another 10,000 known diatom fossil forms. Production Diatomite deposits are usually mined as openpit operations. If necessary, the mined crude ore is dried and crushed. Dried diatomite is collected in cyclones and fed through air separators to remove coarse material and impurities. Calcination and flux calcination are used to thermally volatilize organic material and oxidize iron. Calcination also is used to increase diatomite hardness, specific gravity and refractive index. The fusing of small diatomite particles into clusters can also be accomplished through calcination, which results in increased pore size and volume. Diatomite products are sold as various grades of calcined powders. The United States continues to be the world’s leading producer and consumer of diatomite. Production of diatomite in the United States during 2024 was estimated to be 880 kt, an increase of 4 percent from 849 kt in 2023. Six companies operated 12 mines and nine processing facilities in California, Nevada, Oregon and Washington. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. diatomite exports in 2024 were 63.3 kt. Diatomite imports were 14.2 kt, about one-fourth of the amount of exports. Total world production of diatomite was an estimated 3 Mt in 2024. Following the United States in diatomite production, other significant producers in 2024 were Denmark (530 kt), China (370 kt), France (250 kt), Turkey (240 kt) and Argentina, Mexico and Peru (each with 100 kt). World resources of crude diatomite appear to be adequate for the foreseeable future. However, increased transportation costs may encourage the development of sources of material closer to markets. Prices The unit value of diatomite varied widely by end use in 2024. The estimated annual average unit value of diatomite in 2024 was $590/t, slightly more than in 2023. Diatomite used as an absorbent and as a lightweight aggregate in cement was priced at approximately $10/t, but specialty grade diatomite, used in art supplies, biomedical applications or cosmetics, could be priced above $1,000/t. Consumption Domestic apparent consumption in 2024 was estimated to be 830 kt, an increase of 23 percent from 2023. The internal structure and inert chemical composition of diatomite make it an excellent raw material for filtration, absorbent and filler applications. Filtration, especially the purification of beer, liquors and wine, and the cleansing of greases and oils continued to be the largest end use for diatomite. Other applications included the removal of microbial contaminants, such as bacteria, protozoa and viruses, from public water systems. The use of diatomite as a filler, which serves to displace higher-cost raw materials, and in pharmaceutical applications, including the filtration of human blood plasma, continues to increase, as has its use as an insecticide base and in cement and concrete pozzolan. In 2024, approximately 65 percent of diatomite was utilized in filter aids. The remaining 35 percent was used in abrasives, absorbents, cement, fillers, insulation, lightweight aggregates and other unspecified uses. A small amount, less than 1 percent, was used for specialized biomedical and pharmaceutical purposes. Substitutes Many materials can be substituted for diatomite, especially for lightweight aggregates purposes, such as expanded perlite and silica sand. Synthetic filters, including ceramic, polymeric or carbon membrane, and cellulose fibers offer competition as filter media. Alternate filler materials include clay, ground limestone, mica, perlite, silica sand, talc and vermiculite. For thermal insulation purposes, materials such as specialty brick, various clays, mineral wool, expanded perlite and exfoliated vermiculite may be used. Many alternatives exist for diatomite as a pozzolan, but its use as an ingredient of portland cement has increased in recent years. The sales of natural and synthetic substitute materials into diatomite markets have not been significant. Outlook Adequate supplies of diatomite are likely to remain available for the foreseeable future. The economic stability of the diatomite industry was largely owing to its use as a filtration medium, where demand remains strong and is not sensitive to economic cycles. This is particularly so in the filtration of spirits, as well as human blood plasma and other biotechnical applications. The substitution for diatomite by more advanced filtration products, including carbon membranes, ceramics and polymers, was not a concern in 2024. The high costs associated with these alternatives and a cultural preference toward the use of diatomite in the brewing and wine industries indicate a strong likelihood for the continued widespread use of diatomite in filtration. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Diatomite: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 68–69, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025-diatomite.pdf Fire Clay by Dibyajyoti Behera, Ashapura Group of Industries Fire clay refers to a group of refractory clays capable of withstanding temperatures above pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) 19. Two key properties that determine the suitability of fire clay for manufacturing refractory bricks are refractoriness and plasticity. Refractory manufacturers prefer fire clay, which is high in alumina and low in impurities such as iron oxide, lime, magnesia and alkalis. The aluminous (kaolinitic) variety of fire clay is particularly valued for its higher refractoriness, which is attributed to its hardness, density and low iron content. This variety also exhibits a white-burning color upon firing, further indicating its purity. Production In 2024, the United States produced an estimated 670 kt of fire clay (Fig. 1). Exports and imports The fire clay market is mainly driven by the growths of the steel and construction industries. These sectors require heat-resistant materials, like fire clay, for lining furnaces, kilns, incinerators and other high-temperature equipment. As steel production and construction activities expand, the demand for fire-clay-based refractory products also rises. In 2024, 140 kt of fire clay were exported; import figures for fire clay were not available from the U.S. Geological Survey. In January 2025, the United States exported $3.35 million worth of fire clay and imported $97,300, resulting in a trade deficit of $3.25 million. Compared to December 2024, U.S. exports increased by 69 percent (from $1.98 million to $3.35 million), and imports rose by 34.2 percent (from $72,500 to $97,300). The top export destinations were Mexico ($1.74 million), Canada ($412,000), Japan ($376,000), Australia ($279,000) and South Korea ($176,000). Most imports came from China ($66,500) and Canada ($30,700). Outlook The global fire clay market is expected to witness significant growth over the forecast period, owing to increasing use as fire bricks and in metalworking industries. Its major application is in chimney linings, boiler, glass melting, pottery kilns, and blast and reheating furnaces. It is used as a protective shield in heat-generating machinery installed in places such as power plants and households with fireplaces. Fire clay is applied in these furnaces because of its high melting point (1,515 to 1,775 °C) and its plasticity. The rising number of power plants in India, China, the United States, South Africa and Brazil, the result of increasing energy demand by their populations and rapid industrialization, is expected to fuel fire-clay demand over the forecast period. Furthermore, it is also being increasingly used in construction projects to make the buildings fireproof. This is expected to be fueled by infrastructural developments in China, India, the United States, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, backed by rising disposable income. Key players The leading companies in the industry include Claymont Fire Co. Inc., Fire Clay Minerals Inc., Fireclay Tile Inc., Leeds Fireclay Co. Ltd,, Mohawk Industries Inc., Porcelanosa Grupo, RAK Ceramics PJSC, Rutland Fire Clay Co., Shandong Fire-Proof Materials Group Co. Ltd. and Wortley Fire Clay Co. Figure 1: Fire clay production (sold or used) in the United States, 2019-2024. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey) References U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025.pdfObservatory of Economic Complexity, 2023, Fire Clay https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/fire-clayUSDA Analytics. Industry Reports, 2024, Fire Clay Market https://www.usdanalytics.com/industry-reports/fire-clay-marketGrand View Research. Fire Clay Market - Industry Analysis, 2024, https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/fire-clay-market Frac Sand by Jack Sackrider, P.G., Westward Environmental Inc. In 2024, the hydraulic fracturing sand (commonly known as frac sand) market was valued at around $8.1 billion globally, with U.S. demand reaching an all-time high. The Permian Basin continues to be the busiest region; however, spot pricing in the Permian was down about 40 percent year over year due to oversupply. Frac sand is a high-purity silica sand with specific physical and chemical properties. In the fracking process, a mixture of sand, water and other compounds are pumped down a well at high velocities into very small, induced fractures. The frac sand particles become lodged in the fractures, “propping” them open to allow increased flow of oil and natural gas from the well. A range of particle sizes is typically used during the fracking process. These size ranges are often referred to as the mesh and are based on the ASTM International test sieve sizes. Product mesh sizes include 20/40 mesh, 30/50 mesh, 40/70 mesh and 100 mesh, which is sometimes referred to as 70/140 mesh. The name defines the particle size range, and the two numbers separated by a slash indicate sieve sizes. By convention, the size range includes particles small enough to pass a sieve indicated by the first number but are retained on the sieve of the second number. The American Petroleum Institute (API) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) have published testing procedures and standards for frac sand, which are defined in API RP 19C/ISO 13503-2, “Recommended Practice for Measurement of Properties of Proppants Used in Hydraulic Fracturing and Gravel-packing Operations.” Beyond size, ideal frac sand material will exhibit the following: High silica content — Mineralogical purity is indicative of a mature deposit that has endured physical and chemical weathering, reducing impurities that are physically weaker or that may negatively interact chemically with other fracking fluids. Homogeneous grain size — Individual well conditions drive completion design and desired grain sizes, and mixtures are designed to optimize recovery. In general, larger grains increase permeability but are less durable, while smaller grains are stronger and result in less permeable conditions. High sphericity and roundness — Sometimes referred to as the Krumbein shape factor, sphericity and roundness primarily impact grain strength and completed porosity. More rounded and spherical grains are generally stronger and result in an increased flow of oil and natural gas during extraction. High crush resistance — In order to be effective, individual grains must be able to withstand pressures of 2,000 to 10,000 psi or more. Crush resistance is measured as a percentage of fines generated when a sample is exposed to increasing pressures. A k-value is assigned indicating the greatest pressure withstood, while generating not more than 10 percent fines by weight. For example, a k-value of 9 indicates a sample generating no more than 10 percent fines by weight when subjected to 9,000 psi, but more than 10 percent fines when subjected to 10,000 psi. Low solubility — Solubility tests provide an indication of the amount of undesirable contaminants. Exposing a proppant to a 15 percent solution of hydrochloric-hydrofluoric acid (HCl-HF) may result in the dissolution of part of the proppant, which can reduce fracture permeability. Low turbidity — Turbidity is a measure of clays, silts and other fine-grained impurities, which can negatively impact the fracking fluid. These API standards represent ideal proppant material. However, in recent years, operators have made compromises in proppant quality to drastically reduce well completion costs. Uses While there are very few alternate uses for frac sand, geologic deposits yielding frac sand material can produce glass, foundry, recreational and construction sand, as well as high-purity ground silica products used in coatings, epoxies and ceramics. Production Demand for U.S. frac sand reached an all-time high in 2024, according to estimates from Lium Research, an energy market research firm. Lium estimates that U.S. frac sand pumped increased to 112 Mt for the year. The busiest region continues to be the Permian Basin, where 65 Mt of frac sand were consumed, according to Lium, mostly sourced from local frac sand mines operated in the West Texas region since 2017. The total North American drilling rig count decreased again in 2024, based on data from Baker Hughes (Fig. 1). March saw a maximum of 625 rigs, which fell to 589 by the end of the year. The second quarter saw a consistent decline, with July marking the annual low. The rig count bounced back sharply in August and remained stable for the rest of the year, yet still about 200 rigs below the high in January 2023. The total rig count is typically an indicator of the overall health of the oil and natural-gas industry, and therefore by extension the frac sand industry. This year however, the frac sand market appears to be improving despite the rig count continuing to decline. The price of oil can also be an indicator of frac sand market health. West Texas Intermediate (WTI) oil prices increased during the first quarter, reaching an annual high of $87 per barrel in early April. Prices consistently fell for the remainder of the second quarter before recovering slightly in late June and early July. WTI prices ended the year around where they started, at $72 per barrel, according to data from www.macrotrends.net. Figure 1: Total U.S. rig count, 2024. Prices While frac sand demand has been reaching new all-time highs, spot prices (especially in the Permian) have been under pressure over the past several years because supply growth has overshot demand. In the Permian Basin, Lium assessed 2024 spot prices at $18/t on a free-on-board basis from the mine in the Permian Basin, down about 40 percent year over year. In other frac sand production zones, such as the Northern White Sand corridor in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and the Eagle Ford Shale Basin in South Texas, frac sand producers enjoyed more price stability during 2024, according to Lium. Trends and outlook The market research firm IMARC Group projects a frac sand market compound annual growth rate of 7.06 percent during 2025 to 2033, bringing the market to an estimated $16.1 billion by 2033. North America leads the market; however, China and Australia continue to explore their shale reserves, increasing the demand for frac sand in the Asia-Pacific region, according to IMARC. References Baker Hughes, North American rig count https://rigcount.bakerhughes.com/na-rig-countGlobal Frac Sand Market Statistics, Outlook and Regional Analysis 2025-2033https://www.imarcgroup.com/frac-sand-market-statisticsLium Research, Insights from Mr. Joseph Triepke, https://lium.com/U.S. Geological Survey, Frac Sand in the United States—A Geological and Industry Overview https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2015/1107/US Silica, SIL-CO-SIL https://www.ussilica.com/products/sil-co-silrMacrotrends, WTI crude oil prices https://www.macrotrends.net/1369/crude-oil-price-history-chart Gemstones by Donald W. Olson, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production The value of natural gemstones produced from U.S. deposits during 2024 was estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to be $10 million, unchanged from 2023. U.S. natural gemstone production included agate, beryl, coral, diamond, garnet, jade, jasper, opal, pearl, quartz, sapphire, shell, topaz, tourmaline, turquoise and many other gem materials. More than 60 varieties of gemstones have been produced from U.S. mines, but commercial mining of gemstones has never been extensively undertaken in the United States. Most U.S. gemstone production has been from relatively small mining operations, or production has been as a byproduct of the mining of other mineral commodities. In the United States, much of the current gemstone mining is conducted by collectors, gem clubs and hobbyists, rather than commercial organizations. The commercial gemstone industry in the United States consists of individuals and companies that mine gemstones or harvest shell and pearl; firms that manufacture synthetic gemstones; and individuals and companies that cut natural and synthetic gemstones. The U.S. gemstone industry is focused on the production of colored gemstones and the cutting of large diamonds. During 2024, each of the 50 states were estimated to produce at least $1,790 worth of gem materials. Ten states accounted for 90 percent of the total value, as voluntarily reported to the USGS by survey respondents. These states (listed in alphabetical order) were Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine, Montana, Nevada, Oregon and Utah. Some states are known for the production of a single gem material, such as Tennessee for freshwater pearls. Other states, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada and North Carolina, are known for producing a variety of gemstones. California and North Carolina have identified deposits of three of the most popular precious gemstones: emerald, ruby and sapphire. Both states reported production of emerald, ruby and sapphire during 2024, and diamonds have been found in both states in the past. The USGS estimated the value of U.S. synthetic or manufactured gemstone production was $63 million in 2024. Reported output of synthetic gemstones was from eight companies in North Carolina, California, Oregon, Maryland, New York, South Carolina, Wisconsin and Arizona, in descending order of production value. Production included the manufacture of diamond, moissanite and turquoise. Consumption and uses Although the United States accounts for only a small portion of the total global gemstone production, it is one of the world’s leading gemstone markets. U.S. gemstone markets were estimated to account for more than 35 percent of world gemstone consumption in 2024. U.S. apparent consumption of unset gemstones in 2024 decreased by 15 percent over the previous year to an estimated $18 billion. About 82 percent of the 2024 U.S. gemstone apparent consumption was unset gem-quality diamond, and the remaining 18 percent was unset nondiamond gemstones. The major uses for gemstones in the United States were in jewelry, for carvings, and in gem and mineral collections. Prices Gemstone prices are governed by many factors and qualitative characteristics, including beauty, clarity, demand, durability, freedom from defects, perfection of cutting and rarity. Colored gemstone prices are generally influenced by market supply-and-demand considerations, and diamond prices are supported by producer controls on the quantity and quality of supply. Diamond pricing in particular is complex; values can vary significantly depending on time, place and the subjective evaluations of buyers and sellers. Imports and exports Trade data in this report are from the U.S. Census Bureau. During 2024, total U.S. gemstone trade with all countries and localities was about $21 billion ($19.1 billion in imports plus $1.88 billion in domestic exports). In 2024, U.S. domestic exports of diamond were valued at $1.37 billion. U.S. domestic exports of gemstones other than diamond were valued at $516 million. U.S. imports of diamond were valued at $15.9 billion, and U.S. imports of gemstones other than diamond were valued at $3.21 billion. The United States is a significant international diamond transit center as well as one of the world’s leading gem diamond markets. The large volume of reexports or foreign exports shipped to other centers is one measure of the significance of the United States in the worldwide diamond supply network. In a four-year (2020-2023) average of U.S. import sources by value, the leading gemstone sources were India, 47 percent; Israel, 26 percent; Belgium, 11 percent and South Africa, 5 percent. Diamond imports accounted for an average of 83 percent of the total value of gemstone imports during 2024. In April 2022, the U.S. government banned the import of rough and finished gem-grade diamonds from Russia, and the U.S. Department of the Treasury placed sanctions on the Russian state-owned diamond mining company to prevent diamond revenues from funding the conflict with Ukraine. The Group of Seven (G7; representatives of the seven leading industrial nations) also announced a ban on Russian diamonds in December 2023, with the goal of limiting Russia’s ability to fund its conflict with Ukraine through diamond sales. The European Union (EU) included the G7 diamond ban into its sanctions package against Russia, making it legally binding on EU member states. The EU ban included diamonds processed in third countries and went into effect on March 1, 2024. Outlook During 2024, U.S. jewelers continued to expand their online business and sales from their websites. Internet sales of diamonds, other gemstones, and jewelry are expected to continue at a high level and to increase in acceptance, along with other forms of e-commerce that emerge to serve the diamond and gemstone industries, partially replacing “brick-and-mortar” store sales. Online auctions continued gaining a higher share of rough diamond sales. The major U.S. gemstone trade shows are being held again.During 2024, world gem-quality natural diamond production was an estimated 72 million carats compared with 71.8 million carats in 2023. By 2025, several large mines will reach the ends of their mine life, while only a few new projects are currently being developed. More synthetic gemstones, simulants and treated gemstones are likely to enter the marketplace and necessitate more transparency in the industry trade standards to maintain customer confidence. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Gemstones: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 78–79, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025-gemstones.pdf.U.S. Census BureauU.S. Department of the Treasury, 2022, Press Release, The United States Sanctions Major Russian State-Owned Enterprises, April 7, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0707Reuters, 2024, EU, G7 indirect Russian diamond ban comes into effect, Press Release, March 1,https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-g7-indirect-russian-diamond-ban-comes-into-effect-2024-03-01/ Graphite by Andrew Stewart, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Natural graphite is classified into three types — amorphous, crystalline flake and vein. Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Amorphous refers to its very small crystal size and not to a lack of crystal structure. Crystalline flake graphite is less common and higher quality than amorphous graphite. Flake graphite occurs as separate flakes that crystallized in metamorphic rock and high-quality flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous graphite. Vein graphite is the rarest, most valuable and highest-quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka. An additional type of graphite, synthetic, can be produced by heating petroleum coke to about 3,000 °C to convert the carbon to graphite. High-purity natural and synthetic graphites have played an important role in the emerging nonhydrocarbon energy sector and have been used in several new energy applications. In energy production applications, graphite is used as pebbles for modular nuclear reactors and in high-strength composites for wind, tide and wave turbines. In energy storage applications, graphite is used in bipolar plates for fuel cells and flow batteries, anodes for lithium-ion batteries, electrodes for supercapacitors, high-strength composites for fly wheels, phase change heat storage and solar boilers. In energy management applications, graphite is used in high-performance polystyrene thermal insulation and for silicon chip heat dissipation. These new energy applications use value-added graphite products such as spherical purified graphite (SPG), expanded graphite and graphene. Production No natural graphite was mined in the United States in 2024, but five natural graphite projects were under development. In October, South Star Battery Metals Corp. announced results of the preliminary economic assessment for the BamaStar graphite project in Alabama. Planned production was an average 47 kt/a of graphite concentrate over a 19-year mine life. Titan Mining Corp. continued development of the Kilbourne graphite project, located in St. Lawrence County, NY. In December, the company released the results of the maiden mineral resource estimate. Using a cutoff grade of 1.50 percent, inferred resources were an estimated 20.3 Mt of 2.91 percent graphitic carbon (Cg) for 592 kt of graphite content. In Alaska, Graphite One Inc. continued to progress a feasibility study for its Graphite Creek project. Two additional companies, Reflex Advanced Materials Corp. and Westwater Resources Inc., continued development of natural graphite projects in Montana and Alabama, respectively. In February 2024, Syrah Resources Ltd. began production of natural graphite battery anode material (BAM) at its new facility in Vidalia, LA. Capacity was planned to be 11.25 kt/a of SPG initially, with a potential expansion to 45 kt/a. Syrah supplied the graphite concentrate feedstock from its Balama Mine in Mozambique. Westwater Resources continued construction of a natural graphite BAM facility in Kellyton, AL. An additional nine natural and synthetic graphite BAM plants were under early development in the United States. World production of natural graphite in 2024 was an estimated 1.6 Mt compared with 1.53 Mt in 2023. The leading producers of natural graphite in 2024 were China, 1.27 Mt; Madagascar, 89 kt; Mozambique, 75 kt; and Brazil, 68 kt. These four countries contributed approximately 94 percent of the global natural graphite production. China was also the leading supplier of BAM. China exported 42 kt of natural graphite BAM in 2024, compared to 55.7 kt in 2023, a decrease of 25 percent. Top destinations in 2024 were the Republic of Korea (44 percent), the United States (23 percent), Japan (23 percent) and Indonesia (10 percent). In 2024, China exported 81.3 kt of synthetic graphite BAM, compared to 75.6 kt in 2023, an increase of 8 percent. Top destinations of synthetic graphite BAM in 2024 were the United States (37 percent), Japan (16 percent), Hungary (16 percent) and the Republic of Korea (11 percent).Consumption U.S. consumption of natural graphite was approximately 52 kt in 2024 compared with 66 kt in 2023. The major uses of natural graphite in 2024 were batteries, brake linings, lubricants, powdered metals, refractory applications and steelmaking. The major uses of synthetic graphite in 2024 were batteries, electric motor brushes, electrodes and graphite shapes. Prices Prices for natural graphite largely depend on flake size, size distribution and carbon content. Prices for individual flake mesh sizes were unavailable. The estimated unit values of imports in 2024 were $640/t for amorphous, $1,070/t for flake and $2,900/t for vein graphite from Sri Lanka. According to China customs data, prices for uncoated spherical graphite exported to the United States were $4,030/t in 2024 compared with $4,390/t in 2023, a decrease of 8 percent. Prices for synthetic graphite anode material decreased by 16 percent to $4,420/t in 2024 from $5,250/t in 2023. Foreign trade U.S. trade data are from the U.S. Census Bureau and were analyzed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The data presented in this section are updated trade statistics and were not derived from the 2025 Mineral Commodity Summary. Total U.S. graphite exports decreased by 19 percent in tonnage to 35.8 kt valued at $249 million in 2024 from 44.5 kt valued at $242 million in 2023. Total graphite export tonnage was 24 percent natural graphite and 76 percent synthetic graphite. Total U.S. natural graphite imports were 73.9 kt in 2024 compared with 73.5 kt in 2023, and the value decreased by 9 percent to $142 million in 2024 from $157 million in 2023. Quarterly imports averaged 16.1 kt during the first three quarters of the year but increased to 25.5 kt in the fourth quarter. Principal import sources of natural graphite, by tonnage, were China (48 percent), Canada (14 percent), Madagascar (11 percent), Mozambique (10 percent) and Mexico (10 percent). Total U.S. synthetic graphite imports increased by 3 percent in tonnage to 128 kt in 2024 from 124 kt in 2023, and the value decreased by 15 percent to $488 million in 2024 from $575 million in 2023. Imports from China increased by 16 percent in tonnage and the total value decreased by 12 percent. Principal import sources of synthetic graphite, by tonnage, were China (68 percent), Mexico (8 percent), Republic of Korea, France and Spain (4 percent each). In 2024, U.S. imports of BAM, combined natural and synthetic, was approximately 48 kt, an increase of 23 percent compared with approximately 39 kt in 2023. Most of this material came from China, with the rest coming from Indonesia, Japan and the Republic of Korea. In December 2024, a coalition of graphite producers in North America petitioned the U.S. Department of Commerce and the U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC) to investigate the graphite trade practices of China. The filing claimed that China had been dumping graphite BAM into the United States at prices below fair market value. In January 2025, the ITC voted to continue its investigation after finding a reasonable indication the BAM industry in the United States was being negatively affected. Industry news In Brazil, South Star began commercial production at the Santa Cruz Mine, located in Bahia. Phase one capacity was 12 kt/a, phase two was 25 kt/a, and phase three was 50 kt/a. In Tanzania, Walkabout Resources Ltd. began commissioning the Lindi Jumbo graphite mine. In November, the company entered voluntary administration, but stated operations would continue in the meantime. Initial mine capacity was 40 kt/a of graphite concentrate. In Indonesia, BTR New Material Group Co. Ltd. (Shenzhen, China) began commercial production of BAM at its new facility. Production capacity of the new facility was 80 kt/a of BAM in phase one, expandable to 160 kt/a in phase two. The company planned to produce natural and synthetic graphite BAM in addition to silicon-based BAM. In 2024, Graphjet Technology began commercial operations at its new synthetic graphite facility in Malaysia. The facility would produce up to 3 kt/a of synthetic graphite from about 9 kt/a of palm kernel shells. Palm kernel shells are an agricultural waste byproduct generated during the production of palm seed oil. The company also planned to produce hard carbon, which would be shipped for use as feedstock at a planned synthetic graphite facility in Nevada. The company planned to begin production at the Nevada facility in 2026 with an initial capacity of 10 kt/a of synthetic graphite. In Norway, Vianode AS commissioned Via ONE, a new synthetic graphite facility located in Heroya. The new facility was designed to produce up to 2 kt/a of synthetic graphite BAM. The company had been producing BAM at a pilot plant in Kristiansand since 2021. Outlook Worldwide demand for natural and synthetic graphite is expected to continue increasing as more nonhydrocarbon energy applications that use graphite are developed. Steel production and other types of metallurgical activity, which are important consumers of graphite, are expected to increase as well. Global graphite consumption is expected to increase owing to new technologically advanced applications, such as aerospace applications, fuel cells, graphene, lithium-ion batteries, energy storage and pebble-bed nuclear reactors. The lithium-ion battery industry has created high demand for natural flake graphite. This has led to large increases in exploration and development, much of it focused on Africa. Projects were also under consideration in Australia, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Kazakhstan, Sweden and elsewhere. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Graphite (Natural): U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 84–85, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025South Star Battery Metals Corp., 2024, South Star announces significant increase in mineral resources and positive BamaStar PEA results for vertically integrated graphite mine and value-add project in Alabama, U.S.A.: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, South Star Battery Metals Corp. news release, Oct. 10, 13 pp. (Accessed Jan. 14, 2024, at https://www.southstarbatterymetals.com/ydihapto/2024/10/2024-10-10_STS_Bama_CleanFinal_v8.pdf)Titan Mining Corp., 2024, Titan Mining announces maiden mineral resource estimate for 100 percent owned Kilbourne graphite project at the Empire State Mine: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Titan Mining Corp. news release, Dec. 3. (Accessed March 3, 2025, at https://www.titanminingcorp.com/news/news-releases/titan-mining-announces-maiden-mineral-resource-estimate-for-100-owned-kilbourne-graphite-project-at-the-empire-state-mine)Graphite One Inc., 2024, Graphite One announces kick-off of 2024 field program: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Graphite One Inc. news release, June 26. (Accessed March 18, 2025, at https://www.graphiteoneinc.com/graphite-one-announces-kick-off-of-2024-field-program/)Syrah Resources Ltd., 2024, Quarterly activities report for the three months ending 31 March 2024: Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, Syrah Resources Ltd. news release, April 30. (Accessed March 15, 2025, via https://www.syrahresources.com.au/investors/asx-announcements)Zen Innovations AG, 2025, Global Trade Tracker: Zen Innovations AG database https://www.globaltradetracker.comTrade Data Services Inc., 2025, ImportGenius: Trade Data Services, Inc. database https://www.importgenius.comU.S. International Trade Commission, 2025, Active anode material from China: Washington D.C., U.S. International Trade Commission news release, Jan. 31. (Accessed March 17, 2025, via https://www.usitc.gov/press_room/news_release/2025/er0131_66450.htm)South Star Battery Metals Corp., 2024, South Star announces first product and start of commercial production ramp-up at Santa Cruz phase 1 graphite mine in Bahia Brazil, as well as board change: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, South Star Battery Metals Corp. news release, Oct. 7, 4 pp. (Accessed Jan. 14, 2024, at https://www.southstarbatterymetals.com/ydihapto/2024/10/2024-10-07_STS_SantaCruzStart.pdf)Battery Metals Africa, 2024, Walkabout Resources enters administration, secures funding for Tanzania’s Lindi Jumbo graphite mine: Lusaka, Zambia, Battery Metals Africa news release. (Accessed Jan. 14, 2025, at https://batterymetalsafrica.com/walkabout-resources-enters-administration-secures-funding-for-tanzanias-lindi-jumbo-graphite-mine/)Mining Review Africa, 2024, Lindi Jumbo graphite mine—Commissioning ramps up: Cape Town, South Africa, Mining Review Africa news release, May 3. (Accessed Jan. 14, 2025, at https://www.miningreview.com/battery-metals/lindi-jumbo-graphite-mine-commissioning-ramps-up/)BTR New Material Group Co. Ltd., 2024, BTR’s Indonesia facility becomes largest anode plant outside China: Shenzhen, China, BTR New Material Group Co., Ltd. news release, Aug. 7. (Accessed Feb. 18, 2025, at https://www.btrchina.com/en/News/info.aspx?itemid=1243)BTR New Material Group Co. Ltd., n.d., Anode BU “complete value industry chain” operation: Shenzhen, China, BTR New Material Group Co. Ltd. (Accessed Feb. 18, 2025, at https://www.btrchina.com/en/Negativebusiness2/index.aspx)Graphjet Technology, 2024, Graphjet Technology commences operations at the world’s first agricultural waste-to-graphite facility in Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Graphjet Technology news release, Nov. 19. (Accessed March 19, 2025, at https://investors.graphjettech.com/news-releases/news-release-details/graphjet-technology-commences-operations-worlds-first)Graphjet Technology, 2024, Graphjet Technology to build new agricultural waste-to-graphite production facility in Nevada: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Graphjet Technology news release, April 8. (Accessed March 19, 2025, at https://investors.graphjettech.com/news-releases/news-release-details/graphjet-technology-build-new-agricultural-waste-graphite)Vianode AS, 2024, Vianode inaugurates Via ONE the world’s most sustainable anode graphite plant for batteries: Oslo, Norway, Vianode AS news release, Oct. 24. (Accessed March 19, 2025, at https://www.vianode.com/news/vianode-inaugurates-via-one-the-worlds-most-sustainable-anode-graphite-plant-for-batteries-2) Gypsum by R.D. Crangle Jr., National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production The United States was the world’s leading producer and consumer of mined crude gypsum. Forty-seven companies mined gypsum in the United States in 15 states. Production of crude gypsum in the United States during 2024 was estimated to be 22 Mt, slightly more than in 2023. The average price of mined crude gypsum was $13/t. Sales of synthetic gypsum, most of which was generated as a flue-gas desulfurization product from coal-fired electric power plants, in 2024 were estimated to be 15 Mt and priced at approximately $10/t. World production of gypsum in 2024 was estimated to be 160 Mt, slightly more than in 2023. The United States was the largest producer of natural gypsum in 2024 with an estimated 22 Mt, followed by Iran with an estimated 16 Mt, Oman with 14 Mt, China with 12 Mt, Spain with 11 Mt and Turkey with 10 Mt. Crude gypsum production was reported or estimated in 78 countries or localities in 2024. Consumption Apparent consumption of crude gypsum was an estimated 44 Mt in 2024, compared with 44.6 Mt in 2023. An estimated 2.8 billion m2 of gypsum-derived wallboard products were produced in 2024 domestically. Synthetic gypsum accounted for 34 percent of total domestic gypsum consumption. Demand for gypsum depends principally on the performance of the building construction industry, particularly in the United States, where about 60 percent of consumed gypsum is used for building plasters, the manufacture of portland cement and wallboard products. Gypsum has no practical substitute in the manufacturing of portland cement. Approximately 700 kt of gypsum scrap that was generated by wallboard manufacturing, wallboard installation and building demolition was recycled. That quantity included an estimated 600 kt of preconsumer wallboard waste recycled by wallboard manufacturers, coupled with an estimated 100 kt of post-consumer wallboard. Recycled gypsum was used primarily for agricultural purposes and as feedstock for the manufacture of new wallboard. Other markets for recycled gypsum include athletic field marking, cement production, as a stucco additive, grease absorption, sludge drying and water treatment. Trade As a low-value, high-tonnage bulk commodity normally mined in openpit operations from deposits widely distributed throughout the world, gypsum tends to be consumed within the many countries where it is produced rather than exported. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. gypsum imports totaled 7.13 Mt in 2024, 8 percent less than in 2023. Exports totaled 45.1 Mt, slightly more than in 2023. Less than 20 percent of the world’s crude gypsum production was estimated to enter international trade. Only a few countries, such as Canada, Mexico, Spain and Thailand, were major crude gypsum exporters; of these, Canada and Mexico were significant exporters because of their large deposits in proximity to gypsum-consuming facilities in the United States. For the same reason, Canada and Mexico were the top two recipients of gypsum exports from the United States. World resources World gypsum reserves are large in major producing countries, but data for many countries are not available. Domestic gypsum resources are adequate but unevenly distributed. Synthetic gypsum, most of which is byproduct from coal-fired power plants, coupled with substantial imports from Canada, augment U.S. domestic crude gypsum supplies for wallboard manufacturing in the United States, particularly in the eastern and southern coastal regions. Imports from Mexico supplement domestic supplies for wallboard manufacturing along portions of the U.S. West Coast. Large gypsum deposits occur in the Great Lakes region, the midcontinent region, and several western states. Foreign resources are large and widely distributed. Outlook The use of synthetic gypsum may continue to grow, albeit at a slower pace. As power companies convert coal-fired power generation plants to natural gas, the production of synthetic gypsum could further decline because fewer coal-fired power plants would be operating. Nevertheless, the use of synthetic gypsum by U.S. wallboard manufacturers is likely to continue. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Gypsum: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 86–87, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025-gypsum.pdf Industrial Diamond by Donald W. Olson, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Production During 2024, world production of natural and synthetic industrial diamond was estimated to be 15.5 billion carats, most of which was synthetic. Natural diamond resources have been identified in more than 35 countries. Natural industrial diamond was produced in at least 11 countries as a byproduct of mining gem-quality diamond, and an estimated 41 million carats were produced in 2024, unchanged from production in the previous year. The leading five natural industrial diamond producing countries in descending quantity order were Russia, Botswana, Congo (Kinshasa), Zimbabwe and South Africa, accounting for 97 percent of global production. Synthetic industrial diamond was produced in eight countries during 2024. About 99 percent of the combined natural and synthetic global output was produced (in descending order of production) in China, the United States, Russia, Ireland and South Africa. During 2024, China was the world’s leading producer of synthetic industrial diamond followed by the United States and Russia. In 2024, the two U.S. synthetic producers, one in Pennsylvania and another with facilities in Florida and Ohio, produced an estimated 160 million carats, valued at about $53 million. This production was entirely synthetic diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit. Also in 2024, at least four U.S. firms manufactured polycrystalline diamond (PCD) from synthetic diamond dust and powder and grit. Data are not available for either domestic PCD producers or domestic chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond producers for quantity or value of annual production. Current trade and consumption quantity data are not available for PCD or for CVD diamond. Consequently, PCD and CVD diamond are not included in the industrial diamond quantitative data reported here. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimated a total of 15 million carats of used industrial diamond, valued at about $660,000, was recycled in the United States during 2024. Of this total, an estimated 77,000 carats were recycled diamond stone with a value of $120,000 and the remainder was diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit. Diamond stone recycling operations have decreased in number and scale owing to the lower price of newly produced synthetic industrial diamonds. Most of this recycled material was recovered from used drill bits, diamond tools, and other diamond-containing wastes. Some diamond also was recovered from residues generated in the manufacture of PCD. During the past 40 years, CVD diamond use has grown and has been increasingly accepted by multiple industries as an enhanced material of choice owing to its properties of exceptional strength, hardness, durability, stiffness, high thermal conductivity, chemical inertness and electrical isolation. Use of the CVD process facilitates depositing a layer of diamond with these properties on the surface of a tool. Initially, the CVD process was mostly used for growing thin- and thick-film PCD for cutting tools and dressing applications because of the mechanical properties of diamond. More recent applications that take advantage of CVD diamond’s mechanical properties include wear parts, such as watch gears and chemical-mechanical-polishing pad conditioners. Diamond has tremendous potential for electronics applications because of its high thermal conductivity. It can significantly improve thermal management while remaining highly cost competitive with other materials. CVD diamond is used in microelectronic components, such as high-speed processors, medical devices, wide bandgap radio frequency devices, power conversion devices, and opto-electronic devices (light-emitting diodes, laser diodes) that generate exceptionally high heat densities requiring innovative approaches to thermal management. Diamond coatings are increasingly being used in these applications because the thermal conductivity of diamond is 10 times that of silicon. Boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes for water treatment are attracting significant interest because of diamond’s potential as an environmentally friendly, high-performance electrode material. BDD electrodes have many characteristics that make them ideal for eliminating organic contaminants from water. In the past, diamond has been perceived as an expensive material, but advances in CVD diamond manufacturing, such as the development of microwave carbon plasma technology and the development of higher-throughput hot-filament CVD diamond reactors, have significantly reduced diamond costs and allowed for the use of CVD diamond for an increasing number of applications. In addition to the existing opportunities for synthetic diamond use as gemstones, research and development projects by several companies that use single-crystal CVD diamond materials in high-voltage power switches, lasers, quantum communications and computing, and water treatment and purification have been ongoing.Research also was being done on the use of industrial diamond in medical applications such as bionic eye implants, bioimaging, biomarking, cancer treatments, and surgical tools; in dental applications such as cavity treatments; in cosmetic applications such as beauty treatments, facial exfoliation, wrinkle treatments; in glass shaping and window production; in military uses; in sound speakers; in super lasers; and in many other applications. Consumption The United States remained one of the world’s leading consumers of industrial diamond in 2024. Estimated U.S. apparent consumption of natural and synthetic industrial diamond bort, dust and powder, grit and stones was 330 million carats, valued at $60 million. Industrial diamond is used for applications such as truing and dressing grinding wheels, production of fine wire, waterjet nozzles for material cutting, direct precision cutting and material processing, material testing, drilling, grinding, polishing and finishing materials. The major consuming sectors of industrial diamond are computer chip production; construction; drilling for minerals, natural gas and oil; machinery manufacturing; stone cutting and polishing; and transportation (infrastructure and vehicles). Highway building, milling, and repair and stone cutting consumed most of the industrial diamond stone. During 2024, more than 99 percent of the industrial diamond market used synthetic industrial diamonds because the diamond quality can be controlled, and properties can be customized to fit specific requirements. Prices Both natural and synthetic industrial diamonds had prices with a range of values depending on their crystallinity, purity, shape, size and in the case of synthetic, the absence or presence of metal coatings. During 2024, the average unit value for diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit material produced in the United States was $0.33 per carat. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports of all types of industrial diamond had an average unit value of $0.21 per carat in 2024. These imports were a combination of natural and synthetic diamond stone that had an average unit value of $10.87 per carat and natural and synthetic diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit that had an average unit value of $0.19 per carat. Foreign trade Trade data in this report are from the U.S. Census Bureau. During 2024, U.S. imports of industrial-quality diamond stones (natural and synthetic) were 401,000 carats valued at $4.36 million from 13 countries or localities. The leading import sources were India with 37 percent, South Africa (30 percent), Botswana (17 percent) and Canada (6 percent). U.S. imports of industrial-quality diamond bort, dust and powder, and grit (natural and synthetic) were 238 million carats valued at $44.9 million from 21 countries or localities. The leading import sources were China with 75 percent, South Korea (8 percent) and Ireland (5 percent). During 2024, U.S. exports of industrial diamond dust, grit and powder (natural and synthetic) were about 73.2 million carats valued at $42.2 million to 40 countries or localities. Outlook China is expected to remain the world’s leading producer of synthetic industrial diamond. The United States is expected to continue to be one of the world’s leading consumers of industrial diamond and likely will remain a significant producer and exporter of synthetic industrial diamond as well. Demand for synthetic diamond grit and powder is expected to remain greater than that for natural diamond material. Constant-dollar prices of synthetic diamond products, including CVD diamond films, are expected to continue to decline as production technology becomes more cost effective; the decline is even more likely if competition from low-cost producers in China and Russia continues to increase. Several of the world’s largest diamond mines have matured, passed their peak production levels and closed in recent years, causing a decline in global output during the last two years, and additional mines are approaching the ends of their mine lives. As these mines are depleted, global natural diamond production is expected to continue declining further in quantity, and the global supply of rough natural diamond is forecasted to steadily decrease. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Diamond (Industrial): U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 66–67, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025 Industrial Garnet by Donald W. Olson, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Garnet’s angular fractures, high hardness, specific gravity, chemical inertness and nontoxicity make industrial-grade garnet ideal for many applications. In addition to those properties, garnet is free of crystalline silica and can be recycled. Garnet is the name given to a group of complex silicate minerals, all with an isometric crystal structure and similar physical properties and chemical compositions. Higher-quality garnet is used as a loose-grain abrasive because of its hardness, while lower-quality garnet is used as a filtration medium as it is relatively inert and resists chemical degradation. Garnet is also being used as a proppant in oil and natural-gas well drilling. It may be mixed with other proppants when high temperatures are encountered or in very deep formations. Production In 2024, industrial garnet was mined by three firms — one in Montana and two in New York. In 2024, U.S. production of crude garnet concentrate for industrial use (industrial garnet) was estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to be 80 kt valued at $17 million, a 12 percent increase in both quantity and value compared with 2023 production. Most of the industrial garnet mined in the United States was almandite (iron aluminum silicate). Some andradite (calcium iron silicate) also was mined domestically for industrial uses. Refined garnet material sold or used was estimated to be 140 kt valued at $50 million, a 15 percent decrease in quantity and a 14 percent decrease in value compared with 2023 production.Total world industrial garnet production was estimated to be 980 kt, compared with 972 kt in 2023. Australia (390 kt), China (310 kt) and South Africa (180 kt) were the leading producers in 2024. The United States produced about 8 percent of the industrial garnet mined worldwide. Recycling Garnet can be recycled multiple times without significant degradation of its quality. Most recycled garnet is from blast cleaning and water-jet-assisted cutting operations. Garnet was recycled in Oregon and Pennsylvania, at plants with capacities of 16 and 25 kt, respectively, per year. Consumption In 2024, apparent consumption of industrial garnet in the United States was estimated to be 160 kt, accounting for 16 percent of global garnet production. U.S. apparent consumption decreased by 21 percent compared with 2023. Major applications for industrial garnet in the United States, in descending order by estimated market share, include abrasive blasting, water-filtration media, water-jet-assisted cutting and other end uses, such as in abrasive powders, hydrocarbon reservoir-fracturing proppants, nonslip coatings and sandpaper. Domestically, the industrial sectors that consume industrial garnet include aircraft and motor-vehicle manufacturers, ceramics and glass producers, electronic component manufacturers, natural-gas and petroleum industry, shipbuilders, textile stone washing, water filtration plants and wood-furniture-finishing operations. Prices Prices for industrial garnet cover a range depending upon application, quality, quantity purchased, source and type. During 2024, estimated domestic values of industrial garnet crude concentrate averaged $220/t. The average unit values of refined garnet sold in the United States during the year averaged $350/t. The average customs unit value of U.S. garnet imports in 2024 was $270/t, an increase of 28 percent compared with 2023. Foreign trade The industrial garnet market is competitive. Lower-priced foreign imports began displacing U.S. production in domestic markets during the 1990s. Since then, the United States has become increasingly dependent upon foreign sources of industrial garnet. According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau that was adjusted by the USGS, imports for consumption in 2024 were received from 12 countries or localities and totaled 155 kt, a slight increase from 2023. In 2024, South Africa (54 percent), Australia (29 percent), China (9 percent) and India (6 percent) were the leading suppliers of imports to the United States. U.S. exports were shipped to 55 countries or localities and totaled 24 kt, an increase of 22 percent compared with 2023. U.S. exports of industrial garnet were shipped to Canada (57 percent), Mexico (21 percent) and the Netherlands (4 percent), with the remainder going to several other countries and localities. Outlook Industrial garnet consumption will continue growing as an abrasive blasting medium, replacing silica sand for use in blast cleaning and surface finishing by the aircraft and the shipbuilding industries and by the oil and natural-gas industry. Garnet use will also continue growing as a water filtration media with the growing number of water treatment plants worldwide. Higher production costs and tighter profit margins will continue to affect the industry. To increase profitability and remain competitive with imported material, production may be restricted to only high-grade industrial garnet ores or those deposits that contain other salable mineral products, such as kyanite, marble, mica minerals, sillimanite, staurolite, wollastonite or metallic ores. Worldwide industrial garnet production is expected to gradually increase, with the highest growth in consumption in abrasive blasting and water-jet-assisted cutting. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Garnet (Industrial): U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 76–77, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025U.S. Census Bureau and Trade Mining LLC; data adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey Industrial Sand and Gravel by Robert C. Goodin, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Industrial sand and gravel, often called silica, silica sand or quartz sand, includes sands and gravels with high silicon dioxide (SiO2) content. These sands are used for foundry, glassmaking, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and many other industrial applications. Production In 2024, U.S. industrial sand and gravel sold or used was an estimated 130 Mt valued at an estimated $5.1 billion. The quantity of industrial sand and gravel sold or used decreased slightly, and the value decreased by 12 percent compared with 2023. The estimated average unit value of domestically produced industrial sand and gravel in 2024 was $39/t compared with $43.40/t in 2023. Industrial sand and gravel was produced by 133 companies from 216 operations in 33 states in 2024. The leading producing states were, in descending order of production, Texas, Wisconsin, Illinois and Oklahoma. Combined production from these states accounted for 78 percent of total domestic sales and use. In February, Atlas Energy Solutions Inc. purchased High Crush Inc. In June, Covia Holdings LLC completed a separation of its energy businesses to become Covia Energy LLC. In July, U.S. Silica Holdings Inc. was acquired by Apollo Global Management Inc. In November, Covia Energy LLC and Black Mountain Sand Holdings LLC merged to create Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC. World production of industrial sand and gravel was estimated to be 440 Mt in 2024. The United States was the world’s leading producer and consumer of industrial sand and gravel based on estimated world production figures. Consumption U.S. apparent consumption of industrial sand and gravel was estimated to be 120 Mt in 2024, a 5 percent decrease from 2023. The most important driving force in the industrial sand and gravel industry remained the production and sale of frac sand. In recent years, the consumption of frac sand increased as hydrocarbon extraction from shale deposits increased and the quantity of frac sand used per well increased in the United States. In 2024, domestic industrial sand and gravel consumption decreased due to an oversupply of frac sand leading to lower prices, which caused many industrial sand and gravel companies to decrease production or idle operations. Approximately 83 percent of the U.S. tonnage was used as hydraulic-fracturing sand (frac sand) and well-packing and cementing sand, and 7 percent as glassmaking sand. Other common uses were, in decreasing quantity of use, foundry sand, whole grain fillers for building products, filtration sand and recreational sand, which accounted for 6 percent combined. Other minor uses were, in decreasing quantity of use, roofing granules, chemicals, abrasives, silicon and ferrosilicon, ceramics, fillers, traction, filtration gravel, metallurgic flux and other unspecified uses, which together accounted for 4 percent. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the United States remained a net exporter of industrial sand and gravel, shipping it to almost every region of the world. High global demand for U.S. industrial sand and gravel can be attributed to the high quality and advanced processing techniques used in the United States for many grades of industrial sand and gravel, meeting specifications for virtually any use. Imports of silica are generally of two types — small shipments of very high-purity silica or a few large shipments of lower-grade silica shipped only under special circumstances (for example, very low freight rates). Imports of industrial sand and gravel in 2024 were an estimated 300 kt, a 42 percent increase from 2023. U.S. exports of industrial sand and gravel were an estimated 8.3 Mt, a 16 percent increase from 2023. Outlook The industrial sand and gravel industry continued to be concerned with safety and health regulations and environmental restrictions, especially those concerning crystalline silica exposure. Local shortages of industrial sand and gravel were expected to continue to increase owing to land development priorities, local zoning regulations and logistical issues. These factors may result in future sand and gravel operations being located farther away from high-population centers. Increased efforts to reduce cost, emissions, and the risk of exposure to crystalline silica have led to an increase of in-basin “dry sand” and undried “wet sand” being sold or used as frac sand instead of conventional “dry sand” from out-of-basin sources. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral commodity summaries 2025 (ver. 1.2, March 2025): U.S. Geological Survey, 212 pp., https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025Atlas Energy Solutions Inc., 2024, Atlas Energy Solutions Inc. to acquire Hi-Crush Inc. creating the largest proppant producer in the country and industry leading logistics provider: Austin, TX, Atlas Energy Solutions Inc., Feb. 27. (Accessed April 9, 2025, at https://ir.atlas.energy/news-events/press-releases/detail/29/atlas-energy-solutions-inc-to-acquire-hi-crush-inc)Covia Holdings LLC, 2024, Covia completes separation of energy and industrial businesses: Independence, OH, Covia Holdings LLC, June 30. (Accessed April 9, 2025, at https://www.coviacorp.com/news-releases/posts/covia-completes-separation-of-energy-and-industrial-businesses/)U.S. Silica Holdings, Inc., 2024, U.S. Silica completes transaction with Apollo Funds: Katy, TX, U.S. Silica Holdings, Inc., July 31. (Accessed April 9, 2025, at https://www.ussilica.com/news-release-7/31/24)Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC, 2024, Covia Energy and Black Mountain Sand combine to create Iron Oak Energy Solutions, a leading North American proppant supplier: Houston, TX, Iron Oak Energy Solutions LLC, Nov. 4. (Accessed April 09, 2025, at https://www.ironoakenergy.com/news/covia-energy-and-black-mountain-sand-combine-to-create-iron-oak-energy-solutions-a-leading-north-american-proppant-supplier/) Kaolin by Debashis (Deba) Das, RESPEC The kaolin subgroup of layer silicate clay minerals includes halloysite, nacrite, dickite, kaolinite and odinite. Except for odinite and halloysite, these industrially essential minerals show the same chemical composition: Al2Si2O5(OH)4. Mainly formed by the weathering of feldspar and muscovite (for example, alteration of granitic rocks), kaolin minerals are prevalent in sediments and soils of tropical and temperate regions. Kaolinite is used to manufacture a variety of brick, ceramic and cosmetic products and as filler material in plastic, paint, rubber and paper. This and other kaolin minerals have played a prominent role in human cultural history in the United States and abroad. Kaolin mining has a history in the Southeastern United States, notably central Georgia (1897 to present), which, according to its Washington County residents, hosts the “kaolin capital of the world.” Key producing countries outside the United States include Uzbekistan, Ukraine, China, India, Germany and the Czech Republic. Global players in the market include BASF SE, Sibelco and Imerys SA. Production and consumption According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Mineral Commodities Summary, domestic clay production in 2024 was estimated at 26 Mt for a total market value of $1.7 billion, with approximately 120 companies operating mines in 38 states. Kaolin minerals account for about 4.5 Mt, 17.3 percent of all clay materials recovered in the United States. Half the total kaolin (about 54 percent) went into developing coatings, fillers, extenders and binders, while about 23 percent was used in ceramic products. Exports and imports In 2024, according to the USGS, the United States exported about 1.6 Mt of kaolin minerals, mainly as components in coatings, extenders and fillers, and as ceramics, to Mexico, China and Japan. Compared to 2023, total clay and shale exports increased by 2.4 percent. By comparison, in 2024, only 130 kt of kaolin was imported into the United States. Kaolin exports accounted for $288 million and imports $24 million, resulting in a positive U.S. trade balance of $264 million. Trends and outlook According to Grandview Research, the global kaolin market is forecasted to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 4 percent from 2024 to 2030. Investment in the construction market and increasing demand for paints and coatings, ceramic-based products and cement will drive market growth.Emphasis on green construction will also drive the kaolin market. According to the World Bank’s IFC report, green construction will generate investment opportunities worth $1.5 trillion in emerging markets. Increasing demand for plastics from the construction and packaging industries, especially in China and India, is propelling demand for kaolin. Plastics are used in façade panels, exterior coatings and carpentry, and the rising number of nuclear families in India and China is promoting demand for plastics. However, market growth can be impeded by stringent regulations against kaolin mining. Many kaolin mines are near biodiversity hotspots, potentially degrading water and air bodies. Introducing suspended particles into the air can cause respiratory problems, and mining operations can affect the pH level in nearby water and potentially impact the aquatic flora and fauna. (References available upon request) Kyanite, Andalusite and Sillimanite by David W. Hawkins, Geology and Mineral Resources Program, Virginia Department of Energy Economic deposits The sillimanite minerals group includes the minerals kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite. These naturally occuring minerals are polymorphic (Al2SiO5) but have differences in their respective physical, thermodynamic and crystalline structure properties. They occur as accessory minerals associated with high-grade regional or contact metamorphism. Stratiform replacement deposits also occur through alumina enrichment of silica-rich metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks via hydrothermal alteration. Sillimanite may occur within mineralized quartz veins and pegmatites. As unconsolidated deposits, these minerals can occur in heavy mineral beach and stream placers. The Appalachian region of the southeastern United States hosts economic and sub-economic concentrations of kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite. Other known occurrences are in Alaska, California, Florida, Idaho, Nevada and New Mexico. Economic deposits outside of the United States occur in Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, Canada, China, Finland, France, India, Ireland, Kenya, Madagascar, Nigeria, Norway, Peru, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Ukraine and Zimbabwe. Industrial properties and uses The high alumina content, and thermal and volumetric stability of the sillimanite group minerals make them useful for highly heat-intensive refractory applications, metallurgy, investment casting molds, glass manufacturing and ceramics. High-quality specimens have a market for gemstones. Synthetic mullite (3Al2O3•2SiO2) and silica are produced through calcination of these minerals at temperatures ranging from 1,250 to 1,650 °C. Synthetic mullite has a melting point of about 1,840 °C, which contributes to highly resistant ceramic products.Most mined sillimanite group minerals are used in refractories, predominantly for steel and iron manufacturing, which can be used as a indicator of global mineral production. Other refractory uses include insulating brick, firebrick, refractory concrete, kiln furniture, mortar and gunning mix. Additional end products and uses include ceramics, glass, nonferrous metals, cement, brake shoes and pads, abrasive products, electrical insulators, additives, fillers and filtration of aluminum slag and impurities. Production and consumption In 2024, global production was estimated at 432 kt, lower than the previous five-year average of 524 kt (2019-2023), according to revised U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimates. The 2024 estimate includes 150 kt of andalusite from South Africa, 100 kt of andalusite from China, 78.6 kt of kyanite and calcined kyanite from the United States, 60 kt of andalusite from France, 40 kt of andalusite from Peru, and 3.6 kt of combined sillimanite and kyanite from India (not including reclassified beach deposits). 2024 production totals are based on preliminary estimates by the USGS and data from the Virginia Department of Energy’s Mineral Mining Program. In Virginia, Kyanite Mining Corp. (KMC) is the largest producer of industrial-grade kyanite and mullite under the trademark names Virginia Kyanite and Virginia Mullite, respectively. KMC has operated surface mines and processing facilities since 1945 in Dillwyn, VA, and produces a range of milled kyanite and calcined kyanite (more than 55 percent Al2O3, less than 0.85 percent Fe2O3) products that are shipped mainly by truck to domestic customers and to port facilities for delivery to international customers. Ore deposit geology consists of kyanite quartzite associated with a sequence of interlayered felsic and mafic metavolcanic strata of Ordovician age. Ore-grade material contains 10 to 40 percent kyanite, averaging about 25 percent. In 2024, KMC reported production of approximately 78.6 kt of combined kyanite and mullite product, with an international and domestic customer base estimated at 55 and 45 percent for KMC’s products, respectively. Annual production capacity at the Virginia operation is about 130 kt for commercial-grade kyanite concentrates and up to 39 kt for calcined kyanite per permit specifications and demand. The USGS reports that two companies, based in Alabama and Georgia, produce synthetic mullite from a combination of feedstock materials such as kyanite, kaolin, bauxite and bauxitic kaolin. Resco Products Inc. (Piedmont Minerals Division) has mined andalusite from an andalusite-pyrophyllite (AlSi2O5(OH))-sericite deposit since 1958 to produce high-alumina firebrick and other specialty foundry and ceramic products in Hillsborough, NC. Additional details on production volumes from the above operations were not available and were not included in production estimates for the United States. South Africa, China, France and Peru are the leading global producers for industrial-grade andalusite. Imerys Group conducts mining operations in the Brittany region of France (Glomel) and in South Africa (Thabazimbi). Since 1970, Imerys Group has been mining andalusite from highly weathered Ordovician-age schists adjacent to granitic rocks of the Armorican Massif. Imerys Group also mines andalusite from the Rhino Mine in South Africa, from deposits which are hosted in highly weathered pelitic rocks of the Pretoria Group associated with contact metamorphic rocks of the Bushveld Igneous Complex. In 2022, ARM Andalusite Resources (Pty) Ltd took ownership of an existing mine in the Thabazimbi area of South Africa that was previously operated by Andalusite Resources (Pty) Ltd. Andalucita S.A. has been recovering andalusite since 2009 in northern Peru, with an estimated production capacity of 50 kt as of 2018. In China, andalusite reserves were estimated at 361 Mt, according to details from a company website in 2023 (Xinjiang Xinrong Yilong Andalusite Co., Ltd). The website also stated that the company has an annual production capacity of 40 kt of andalusite products. Additional production information was not available. India is the primary source for the global supply of sillimanite with operations in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Kerala. More than 73 percent of the sillimanite resources occur in heavy mineral sand placers along India’s modern beaches. The Indian Ministry of Mines estimates total resources of more than 72.3 Mt of sillimanite, which includes approximately 8 Mt of proven reserves. The ministry also estimates total resources of 105.7 Mt of kyanite, with 393 kt of proven reserves. Foreign trade and prices Import and export pricing for the sillimanite minerals group products are influenced by a variety of factors including ore grade and purity, quantity, particle (mesh) size, packaging, monetary exchange rates, source and destination. In 2024, the U.S. Census Bureau reported global exports of approximately 40.5 kt of kyanite and 17.5 kt of mullite, slightly down from 2023 exports. Kyanite was valued at $459/t, and mullite was valued at $525/t. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, imports of sillimanite minerals to the United States were estimated at 5.9 kt in 2024. Trends and outlook Trends in the market demand for the sillimanite minerals group are associated with global steel production, as the refractory uses of these minerals are critical for this industry. The World Steel Association estimated global steel production at 1,885 Mt in 2024. China led in total steel production (1,005 Mt), comprising 53 percent of the global output for 2024, followed by India, Japan, the United States and Russia, rounding out the top five producers. Steel production in the European Union was estimated at 130 Mt in 2024. The United States will likely continue to experience an increased demand for steel for the vehicle manufacturing industry and ongoing infrastructure and construction improvements, but potentially at a slower rate than previous years if tariffs on steel imports are imposed and remain in effect. Imposed tariffs on steel imports to the United States may encourage additional domestic steel production capacity, but downstream industries are expected to have higher manufacturing costs in the near term, which may affect overall demand for certain sectors. References ARM Andalusite, 2025, https://armandalusite.co.za/about/Andalucita S.A., 2025, http://www.andalucita.comHatfield, A.K., 2025, Kyanite and Related Minerals: United States Geological Survey, Mineral CommoditySummaries, January 2025, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcsHatfield, A.K., 2024, Kyanite and Related Minerals: United States Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook 2023 Tables, October 2024, https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/kyanite-statistics-and-informationHatfield, A.K., 2019, Kyanite and Related Minerals: United States Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook 2019, March 2024, https://pubs.usgs.gov/myb/vol1/2019/myb1-2019-kyanite.pdfImerys, 2024, https://www.imerys.com/news/andalusite-production-glomel-reconciling-strategic-and-environmental-challengesImerys, 2025, https://www.imerys.com/minerals/andalusiteIndian Bureau of Mines, Ministry of Mines, Government of India, Indian Minerals Yearbook 2020, Vol III, Chapter 17, Kyanite,Sillimanite and Andalusite, 13 pp.Indian Bureau of Mines, Ministry of Mines, Government of India, Indian Minerals Yearbook 2022, Part 1: General Reviews, Production, https://ibm.gov.in/writereaddata/files/17125732636613cb4f90628Production_2022.pdfKMC, 2025, Kyanite Mining Corp., www.kyanite.comOwens, B.E. and Pasek, M.A., 2007, Kyanite quartzites in the Piedmont Province of Virginia: Evidence for a possible high-sulfidation system, Economic Geology, v. 102, pp. 495–509Resco Products Inc., 2025, www.rescoproducts.comSweet, P.C., Lassetter, W.L., and Sherwood, W.C., 2016, Non-fuel mineral resources in Virginia, in Bailey, C.M., Sherwood, W.C., Eaton, L.S., and Powars, D.S., (eds.), The Geology of Virginia: Virginia Museum of Natural History Special Publication 18, pp. 407–441US Census Bureau, 2025, USA Trade Online, https://usatrade.census.gov/Virginia Energy, 2025 - Virginia Department of Energy, Mineral Mining Program 2024 Annual Production Data, https://www.energy.virginia.gov/mineral-mining/mineralmining.shtmlWorld Steel Association, 2025, www.worldsteel.org Lime by L.E. Apodaca, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey In 2024, all commercially produced lime (CaO, Ca(OH)2) in the United States was manufactured from limestone or dolomite, but lime also can be produced from a variety of similar carbonate materials, such as aragonite, chalk, coral, marble and seashells, if they are of high chemical purity. The term lime in this article refers to high calcium and dolomitic quicklime, their hydroxide (hydrated) forms and dead-burned dolomite. In the United States, most lime (about 80 percent) is produced as quicklime. Hydrated lime (also called slaked lime) is a dry calcium hydroxide powder made from reacting quicklime with a controlled amount of water in a hydrator. Slaked lime is widely used in aqueous systems as a low-cost alkali to neutralize or balance acidity. Dead-burned dolomite is the primary form of lime used in refractories. Production and consumption In 2024, an estimated 16 Mt of quicklime and hydrate was produced (excluding independent commercial hydrators), unchanged from 2023. At year-end, 26 companies were producing lime, including 17 companies with commercial sales and nine companies that produced lime strictly for internal use (for example, sugar companies). These companies had 73 primary lime plants (plants operating quicklime kilns) in 28 states and Puerto Rico. Five of these 26 companies operated only hydrating plants in nine states. In 2024, the five leading U.S. lime companies produced quicklime or hydrate in 22 states and accounted for about 80 percent of total U.S. lime production. Principal producing states were Alabama, Missouri, Ohio and Texas. The United States was the world’s third-ranked lime producer in the world after China and India. Apparent consumption at 16 Mt was estimated to be unchanged from that in 2023. Major markets for lime were, in descending order of consumption, steelmaking, chemical and industrial applications (such as the manufacture of fertilizer, glass, paper and pulp, and precipitated calcium carbonate and in sugar refining), flue-gas treatment, construction, water treatment and nonferrous-metal mining. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, imports of lime increased by 5 percent to 362 kt in 2024 from 343 kt in 2023. Canada (96 percent) was the leading source of lime imports to the United States. U.S. lime exports decreased by 8 percent to 318 kt in 2024 from 344 kt in 2023. Lime exports were primarily shipped to Canada (97 percent). Prices The U.S. Geological Survey calculates unit values of lime products from the quantity and value data reported for lime sold or used by the lime producers on a free-on-board plant basis, including the cost of containers. These calculations provide average values that eliminate variables such as potentially significant differences between list prices and individual supply contracts. Lime prices are not published in trade publications. To avoid disclosing company proprietary data, value data for dead-burned dolomite have not been reported separately but are included within the weighted average of all types of lime.The total weighted average price of all quicklime sold or used was estimated to be $190/t in 2024, 4 percent higher than in 2023, and that of hydrate sold or used was estimated to be $240/t, a slight increase from 2023. Outlook Lime sales in markets such as chemical and industrial, construction and steel are expected to follow the trend in gross domestic product in the overall economy. The outlook for flue-gas systems (lime’s third-ranked market) serving coal-fired power plants, incinerators and other industries is easier to predict. With the recent boom in natural-gas exploration, large increases in natural-gas reserves, and low natural-gas prices, U.S. electric utilities have increasingly shifted their fuel use from coal to natural gas either by conversion of the coal-fired plants or by shutting down coal-fired plants. Natural gas has the advantage of producing lower emissions than coal and, as a result, does not usually require sulfur dioxide (SO2) scrubbing, which could lead to decreased use of lime in flue-gas scrubbing systems. In 2024, 16 percent of domestic utility-scale electricity generation was from coal compared with 17 percent in 2023 as a result of increased electricity generation from renewable sources. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Lime: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 108–109, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2025, Short-term energy outlook: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Feb. 11, p. 62. (Accessed March 6, 2025, at https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/steo/outlook.php#issues) Lithium by Debashis (Deba) Das, RESPEC In 2024, global lithium production experienced significant growth, with output increasing by 18 percent to approximately 240 kt of contained lithium, up from 204 kt in 2023. This surge was driven by heightened demand from the lithium-ion battery market and expansions in production capacity across various countries. Notably, Australia led the production with 88 kt, followed by Chile (49 kt), China (41 kt), Argentina (18 kt) and Zimbabwe (22 kt). The United States also contributed to global production; however, specific figures were withheld to protect proprietary company data. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reported that commercial lithium production in the United States was from a continental brine operation in Nevada. Lower prices in 2024 led to the idling of the brine-sourced waste tailings of a Utah-based magnesium producer. Two companies in the United States manufactured an array of downstream lithium compounds utilizing lithium carbonate, lithium chloride and lithium hydroxide sourced either domestically or through imports. Consumption The USGS reported that the world lithium consumption was about 220 kt of lithium contained in minerals and compounds, a 29 percent increase from the revised consumption figure of 170 kt in 2023. U.S. consumption data were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. The estimated global distribution for lithium used in 2024 was batteries, 87 percent; ceramics and glass, 5 percent; lubricating greases, 2 percent; continuous casting mold flux powders, 1 percent; air treatment, 1 percent; medical, 1 percent; and other uses, 3 percent. Lithium’s important properties include low density, high specific heat, low coefficient of thermal expansion, high electrochemical potential and excellent thermal conductivity. Prices Despite the increase in production, lithium prices saw a considerable decline throughout 2024. According to the USGS, the annual average U.S. lithium carbonate price dropped by 66 percent from the previous year, settling at $14,000/t. In China, spot prices for lithium carbonate decreased from approximately $14,500/t in January to about $9,400/t in November. Similarly, lithium hydroxide prices fell from around $17,000/t to $9,900/t over the same period. Spodumene concentrate (6 percent lithium oxide) prices in Australia also declined, from approximately $1,250/t in January to about $730/t in November. The decline in prices was attributed to several factors, including concerns over a short-term oversupply of lithium and weaker-than-expected electric-vehicle (EV) sales during the first half of the year. However, incentives and discounts led to a significant increase in EV sales in the third quarter of 2024, particularly in Canada, China and the United States. Recent developments and outlook The United States has recently intensified efforts to develop its domestic lithium industry, aiming to reduce dependence on foreign sources, particularly China, and to support the growing demand for EVs and renewable energy storage. Key developments include significant mining projects, federal investments, and advancements in battery technology. Major U.S. lithium projects One of the most prominent initiatives is the Thacker Pass project in Nevada, operated by Lithium Americas. As announced by Lithium Americas in an October 2024 press release, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) finalized a $2.26 billion loan to support the construction of processing facilities for phase one of the project. This phase is expected to produce 40 kt of battery-quality lithium carbonate annually, sufficient for approximately 800,000 EVs per year. In California, the Hell’s Kitchen lithium and power project near the Salton Sea has received judicial approval to proceed. This integrated geothermal and lithium extraction project aims to produce up to 300 kt of lithium carbonate equivalent per year and generate 1,100 MW of baseload renewable power.Additionally, the Rhyolite Ridge lithium-boron project in Nevada, developed by Ioneer Ltd., received final federal approval in October 2024. This project is expected to commence production by 2028 and aims to supply enough lithium for 370,000 EVs annually over a span of 20 years. Federal policy and investment The DOE has announced more than $3 billion in funding for 25 projects across 14 states to boost domestic production of advanced batteries and battery materials. This investment includes grants for lithium extraction projects, such as Standard Lithium’s South West Arkansas project, which received a $225 million grant. The project, in partnership with Equinor, aims to use direct lithium extraction technology to produce battery-grade lithium carbonate. Technological innovation and private-sector activity According to renewable-energy reporter Zachary Visconti (2024), Tesla has commenced operations at its new lithium refinery in Robstown, TX. This facility is the first large-scale lithium refinery in the United States and is expected to produce enough lithium hydroxide to support the production of more than one million EV batteries annually. As noted above, Standard Lithium and Equinor have also formed a joint venture, Smackover Lithium, to develop direct lithium extraction projects in southwest Arkansas and East Texas. These projects aim to tap into lithium-rich brine resources using innovative extraction technologies. Supply-chain challenges and strategic outlook Despite these advancements, the United States remains heavily reliant on China for critical minerals and battery components. China’s recent export restrictions on rare earth elements and graphite have raised concerns about potential disruptions in the EV supply chain. Efforts to mitigate this dependency include the development of domestic mining projects, investment in alternative extraction technologies, and the establishment of battery recycling programs. These initiatives reflect a concerted effort by the United States to build a resilient and sustainable lithium supply chain, essential for the nation’s transition to clean energy and electric mobility. References Equinor, 2025, Arkansas Lithium project finalized USD 225 million award. Jan. 16. Retrieved from https://www.equinor.com/news/20250116-arkansas-lithium-usd-225-million-awardLithium Americas, 2024, Lithium Americas closes $2.26 billion U.S. DOE ATVM loan. Oct. 28. Retrieved from https://lithiumamericas.com/news/news-details/2024/Lithium-Americas-Closes-2.26-Billion-U.S.-DOE-ATVM-Loan/default.aspx?Nevada Current, 2024, Feds approve Rhyolite Ridge lithium mine in Nevada. Oct. 25. Retrieved from https://nevadacurrent.com/2024/10/25/feds-approve-rhyolite-ridge-lithium-mine-in-nevada/NS Energy, 2024, Hell’s Kitchen Lithium and Power Project, US. Aug. 14. Retrieved from https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/projects/hells-kitchen-lithium-and-power-project-us/Standard Lithium, 2025, Standard Lithium, Equinor announce Smackover Lithium as new joint venture name. Jan. 30. Retrieved from https://www.standardlithium.com/investors/news-events/press-releases/detail/184/standard-lithium-equinor-announce-smackover-lithium-as-newU.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summary 2025- LithiumVisconti, Z., 2024, Tesla launches the first large-scale lithium refinery in the U.S. Dec. 15. Retrieved from https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-first-us-lithium-refinery-texas/ Magnesia by Sharath Kumar Bhoja, Process Technology Group, Tata Steel Ltd. Magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO) is a critical, versatile industrial mineral sourced from seawater, brines, deep salt deposits and magnesite mining. The three main compounds are (1) caustic calcined magnesia (CCM), which are used in agriculture, animal feed, environmental applications and chemical industries, (2) dead burned magnesia (DBM), which are primarily used in refractories for high-temperature applications, mainly in steel, cement and glass industries, and (3) fused magnesia (FM), which are also used in high-performance refractories, as well as electrical insulation (Fig. 1). The importance of magnesia is underscored by its versatility and strategic value across both industrialized and emerging economies. As a critical input in advanced industries and basic infrastructure, magnesium compounds play a pivotal role in supporting sustainable development and industrial competitiveness worldwide. Production and capacity The total world magnesite reserves exceed 8.5 Gt. Global production of magnesium compounds in 2024 was estimated at approximately 28 Mt (including all forms). Most of the production comes from natural magnesite, brine, dolomite and seawater. Major reserves are in China, Russia, North Korea, Turkey, Brazil and European Union (EU) countries such as Greece, Slovakia and Austria. Seawater and brine-derived magnesia, especially relevant in countries like the United States and Japan, are being promoted as sustainable alternatives to mined magnesite. Untapped sources such as serpentine and brine reserves in the Dead Sea and Qinghai (China) represent significant potential. Technology improvements are enabling more economic extraction from these sources. As of early 2025, global production of magnesia was estimated at 23.7 Mt, with China continuing to lead production. China produced approximately 16.1 Mt, accounting for nearly 68 percent of global production. Notably, Greece and Australia have increased their magnesia output through investments in brine extraction and processing upgrades. China dominates global production and exports of magnesia, with a significant concentration in Liaoning Province. According to the Euromines Project Blue 2025 report, 80 percent of Liaoning’s production is expected to be controlled by five major producers by the end of 2025, indicating major industry consolidation. Figure 1: Proportions of CCM, DBM and FM production (estimated based on 2023 production data published in Euromines, 2025). Europe contributes about 7 percent to global production, with major producers in Greece, Slovakia and Austria. The region hosts about 25 percent of the world’s magnesite reserves. However, import dependency, particularly from China, has raised strategic concerns in the EU. The United States produced magnesium compounds valued at approximately $450 million in 2024, sourced primarily from seawater and natural brines, and from magnesite mined in Nevada. Consumption and end uses In 2024, global consumption reached 27.2 Mt, with primary demand from steel refractory manufacturing (36 percent), environmental and flue-gas desulfurization (22 percent), agriculture (15 percent), chemical processing (14 percent) and deicing (5 percent). The highest growth was observed in South and Southeast Asia, led by India and Vietnam, driven by infrastructure development and environmental controls.The steel industry remains the largest consumer of magnesia, particularly for basic refractory products. More than 50 percent of magnesia consumption globally is tied to steelmaking. CCM is used in wastewater treatment, flue-gas desulfurization, fertilizer production and as a feedstock in chemical industries. Magnesium hydroxide serves as a flame retardant and environmental neutralizer.Increasing use in soil conditioning, animal feed additives and remediation applications has boosted magnesia demand in the agricultural and environmental sectors. Exports and imports International trade in magnesium compounds is heavily skewed toward exports from China, accounting for more than 60 percent of global trade in 2024. Key importers include India, the United States, Germany, Japan and South Korea. Market reliance on China has prompted diversification efforts, with countries like Turkey and Brazil expanding their processing capacities to reduce dependency. China remains the principal exporter of magnesia, supplying Japan, India, South Korea, the United States and several European countries. In 2024, Chinese exports exceeded 6.2 Mt, reflecting increased global demand. The EU imports nearly 40 percent of its magnesia from China. This dependence has triggered supply security concerns, prompting EU policies to classify magnesite and magnesia as strategic raw materials.The United States imported magnesium compounds valued at approximately $223 million in 2024. Major suppliers were China, Canada and Brazil. Figure 2: Proportions of (a) production and (b) reserves of magnesia and compounds by country, 2024. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Euromines) Prices Prices for key magnesium compounds remained under pressure in early 2024 due to oversupply, particularly in China. Fused magnesia, on a free-on-board (FOB) China basis, averaged $410/t in the first quarter of 2025, down from $440/t year on year. However, caustic-calcined magnesia saw a moderate price recovery in the EU and India, driven by strong agricultural and water-treatment demand.Globally, prices have remained volatile, driven by demand fluctuations, energy prices and stricter environmental regulations. In early 2025, average FOB prices were $620 to 730/t for Chinese DBM and $1,120 to 1,350/t for FM. (Price charts available upon request.) Environmental regulation enforcement and production consolidation in China have stabilized prices since late 2023, with only modest increases into early 2025. Trends and outlook Market growth: The global magnesia market is expected to grow by $3.10 billion during 2024–2028 at a compound annual growth rate of 5.64 percent, led by Asia-Pacific due to robust demand in steel and manufacturing industries. Sustainability and supply security: Increasing focus on green mining, recycling of spent refractories, and circular economy frameworks are being implemented, particularly in the EU and developed economies. Technological innovations: Research and development in advanced magnesia-based refractories, carbon-capture applications, and magnesium-based nanomaterials is gaining traction, supported by industrial and academic collaboration. Countries are investing in domestic production capacity to mitigate geopolitical risks associated with heavy reliance on Chinese exports. Regionalization: The EU is actively pursuing initiatives to increase domestic production of critical raw materials, including magnesia, to reduce reliance on imports. Price volatility: Magnesia prices are expected to remain volatile in the near term due to factors such as Chinese production policies, energy prices and global economic conditions. Focus on high-grade magnesia: Demand is expected to increase for high-grade magnesia to meet growing Chinese demand for the material. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025: Magnesium Compounds. Retrieved from https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025-magnesium-compounds.pdfEuromines, 2025, Project Blue: Magnesite and Magnesia – Indispensable and Strategic for Europe. Retrieved from https://euromines.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Euromines-Magnesia-Industry-Study.pdfTechnavio, 2024, Magnesia Market Forecast 2024–2028 Manganese by Sharath Kumar Bhoja, Process Technology Group, Tata Steel Ltd. Manganese (Mn) is a critical industrial metal primarily used in steelmaking and is increasingly vital for energy storage in electric-vehicle (EV) batteries. Despite global challenges in 2024 — such as the steel market’s sluggishness and geopolitical disruptions — the manganese industry showed resilience, especially through strategic shifts toward sustainability and electrification. World resources and production South Africa remains the largest global supplier, with countries like Brazil and Gabon having significant untapped resources. Projects in Botswana (Giyani), Kenya (Marula) and Peru (Benguela) show promise for battery-grade manganese. In 2024, global manganese ore production was 19.8 Mt. Production of high-grade ore (more than 44 percent Mn) and low-grade ore (less than 30 percent Mn) expanded by 3 percent and 21 percent, respectively, while that of mid-grade ore (more than 40 and less than 44 percent Mn) fell sharply by 44 percent compared to the previous year. Production in Gabon contracted by 4 percent from the previous year, while production increased by 9 percent in South Africa and 64 percent in Ghana. Together, these three countries constitute the majority of global supply. The increases in South Africa and Ghana were offset by lower output in other producing countries like Australia (down 57 percent), India (down 4 percent), Brazil (down 35 percent), Malaysia (down 2 percent) and Ivory Coast (down 18 percent). In Australia, the suspension of South32’s GEMCO facility after Cyclone Megan caused severe disruptions in late March 2024, with operations expected to resume only in 2025. Consumption and end uses Consumption of manganese closely follows the steel industry, with 96 percent of manganese ore consumed in the steel industry. The World Steel Association estimated global finished steel consumption would decrease by 0.9 percent in 2024. In 2024, global steel output was 1.89 Gt, down 0.2 percent year over year, with China contributing 1.02 Gt, down 0.7 percent. Steel output in India grew by 5 percent, and it remains the most dynamic market. Battery-sector manganese demand also rose, accounting for 3 percent of ore use, primarily for high-purity manganese sulfate (HPMSM) in EVs and energy storage. Figure 1: Top manganese ore producing countries in 2024. Imports and exports In 2024 the top manganese ore importing countries were, in decreasing order, China, India, Norway, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, France, South Korea and the United States. (Chart of top importing countries available upon request) China reduced its imports of high-grade ore due to price spikes and inventory corrections. Ukraine resumed silico-manganese exports in the second quarter. India expanded its exports, particularly of SiMn and FeMn alloys. Freight rates fluctuated due to Red Sea conflicts but dropped 36 percent by October. Prices Manganese ore prices were highly volatile in 2024. The second quarter saw a rally driven by Chinese restocking and reduced African supply. Mid-grade ore prices hit highs; however, silico-manganese alloy prices fell, triggering smelter shutdowns. Amid the second-quarter manganese ore price rally, Chinese manganese alloy producers reduced high-grade ore usage to 15 to 20 percent, with 10 to 15 percent sourced from Gabon, down from at least 30 percent in past blends. In January 2025, average spot prices of manganese ore deliveries to China were $4.01/t unit of contained manganese, 36 to 38 percent grade, and $4.22/t unit of contained manganese, 44 percent grade, slightly more and 4 percent more, respectively, than in December 2024 (Fig. 2). Compared with the monthly average values in January 2024, the January 2025 price for 36 to 38 percent grade was 10 percent more, while that for the 44 percent grade was slightly more. Figure 2: Price variation illustrating the volatility in 2024. (Source: IMnI Annual Review 2024) Trends In 2024, several significant regulatory changes impacted the manganese industry: The European Union’s (EU) Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) has started reporting duties for importers, a policy aimed at preventing carbon leakage. This policy affects International Manganese Institute (IMnI) members, particularly ferromanganese alloy producers, who import these products into the EU. The EU Council adopted the Critical Raw Materials Act in March 2024, ensuring a secure and sustainable supply of critical raw materials, including manganese. The act recognizes its importance in transitioning to a climate-neutral continent and aims to secure access to these materials. The EU revised its Classification, Labelling, and Packaging Regulation in October 2024, introducing new hazard classes and labeling requirements for chemicals with endocrine-disrupting properties, impacting human health and the environment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) plans to assess manganese exposure through its Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) program, with IMnI and the Manganese Interest Group (MIG) collaborating to ensure robust data for evaluation. The EPA funds the Cornwell Research Group in Newport News, VA, for manganese drinking water treatment (September 2024). The European Commission to start working on mining best available techniques — manganese included in the scope of the upcoming exercise (July 2024). In 2024, Ghana recorded an impressive 64 percent growth in production, indicating strong operational expansion. Gabon saw a slight decline of 4 percent due to temporary production halts. Australia’s output dropped by 57 percent due to the suspension of South32’s GEMCO mine. India and Brazil also recorded declines due to policy and environmental constraints. Figure 3 shows the growth rates of manganese ore production across major producing countries in 2024. Figure 3: Growth rates of manganese ore production by country in 2024. (Source: IMnI Annual Review 2024) Outlook In 2025, a recovery in manganese alloy markets, strong growth for battery-grade manganese, and a focus on circular economy through slag reuse and recycling are expected. References IMnI Annual Review 2024, International Manganese InstituteU.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Industry survey January 2025, https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/mineral-industry-surveys Mica by S.M. Jasinski, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Surveyby S.M. Jasinski, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Mica has several unique physical properties. The crystalline structure of mica forms layers that can be split or delaminated into thin sheets. These sheets are chemically inert, dielectric, elastic, flexible, hydrophilic, insulating, lightweight, platy, reflective, refractive, resilient and range in opacity from transparent to opaque. Mica is stable when exposed to electricity, light, moisture and extreme temperatures. The mica group represents 37 phyllosilicate minerals that have a layered or platy texture. The commercially important micas are muscovite and phlogopite, which are used in a variety of applications. Muscovite is the principal mica used by the electrical industry to make mica-based capacitors that can operate in environments with temperatures and (or) frequencies that are too high for polypropylene capacitors. Phlogopite mica is used in plastic composites for automotive applications because of its dimensional stability, increased stiffness, and improved heat distortion temperature. Production In 2024, U.S. mine production of scrap and flake mica was an estimated to be 23 kt, a 38 percent decrease from 2023. Production of ground mica was an estimated 52 kt, 15 percent lower than in 2023. Mica was mined in Georgia and North Carolina. Production and consumption of scrap and flake mica decreased in 2024, owing in part to the closure of one mica facility in South Dakota and from storm damage to facilities in western North Carolina from Hurricane Helene in October 2024. Scrap mica was recovered primarily from mica and sericite schist and as a byproduct from the production of feldspar, industrial sand beneficiation, and kaolin. Ground mica was produced from domestic and imported scrap and flake mica. In 2024, world production of scrap and flake mica was estimated to have increased to 380 kt from 379 kt in 2023. Madagascar (85 kt), China (80 kt), Finland (50 kt) and the United States (23 kt) were the leading producers. World production of sheet mica was unavailable in 2024, but India (1 kt) was thought to be the leading producer. Consumption Domestic apparent consumption of all forms of scrap and flake mica was estimated to have been 39 kt, 26 percent lower than in 2023. Apparent consumption of sheet mica was estimated to have increased to 3,600 t in 2024 from 3,310 t in 2023, owing to a decrease in exports. The leading domestic use of ground mica was in joint compound for filling and finishing seams and blemishes in gypsum wallboard (drywall). The mica acts as a filler and extender, provides smooth consistency, improves the workability of the compound and provides resistance to cracking.The second-ranked use of ground mica was as an additive to drilling muds by the natural-gas and oil well drilling industry. Coarsely ground mica flakes help prevent the loss of circulation by sealing porous sections of the drill hole. Mica was used in paint, where ground mica was used as a pigment extender that also facilitates suspension, reduces chalking, prevents shrinking and shearing of the paint film, increases resistance of the paint film to water penetration and weathering, and brightens the tone of colored pigments. The plastics industry used ground mica as an extender and filler, especially in parts for automobiles as lightweight insulation to suppress sound and vibration. Other significant uses for ground mica are in the rubber industry as an inert filler and mold release compound. As a surface coating in the production of rolled roofing and asphalt shingles, mica prevents the sticking of adjacent surfaces. Mica was used in decorative coatings on wallpaper, concrete, stucco and tile surfaces. Ground phlogopite mica was used in automotive brake linings and clutch plates to reduce noise and vibration (asbestos substitute). Wet-ground mica, which retains the brilliancy of its cleavage faces, was used primarily in pearlescent paints by the automotive industry. In the cosmetics industry, its reflective and refractive properties make mica an important ingredient in blushes, eyeliner, eyeshadow, foundation, hair and body glitter, lip gloss, lipstick, mascara, moisturizing lotions and nail polish. Mica was added to latex balloons to provide a colored shiny surface. Sheet mica was used principally in the electronics and electrical industries. Its usefulness in these applications is derived from its unique electrical and thermal insulating properties and its mechanical properties, which allow it to be cut, punched, stamped and machined to close tolerances. Prices In 2023, the average unit value of scrap and flake mica produced in the United States, which included high-quality sericite, was estimated to be $140/t. The average unit value of dry-ground mica was estimated to be $300/t, and the average unit value of wet-ground mica was estimated to be $310/t. Sheet mica prices vary with grade and can range from less than $1/kg for low-quality mica to more than $2,000/kg for the highest quality. The estimated average unit value of mica splittings consumed in the United States in 2023 was $1.80/kg. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports and exports of scrap and flake mica were 19.7 kt and 4.16 kt, respectively, in 2024. Imports of scrap and flake mica increased slightly, and exports increased by 14 percent, compared with 2023. In 2024, China (47 percent), Canada (36 percent) and India (6 percent) supplied most U.S. imports of scrap and flake mica, with the remainder from several other countries. Most exports of scrap and flake mica went to Mexico (32 percent), Brazil (17 percent) and Canada (12 percent). In 2024, U.S. imports and exports of sheet mica were 4.51 and 864 kt, respectively. Imports of sheet mica increased by 4 percent and exports decreased by 14 percent compared with 2023. In 2024, China (55 percent), Vietnam (26 percent) and Brazil (4 percent) supplied most U.S. imports of sheet mica, with the remainder from several other countries. Most U.S. exports of sheet mica went to Mexico (25 percent), Netherlands (13 percent) and Canada (12 percent). Outlook The major markets for ground mica — drywall joint compounds and paints — are mature and relatively stable industries, with growth tied to housing construction and interest rates. Demand is also affected by automobile production because interior and exterior parts typically contain dry-ground mica or engineered mica composites, and exterior surfaces may be painted with wet-ground pearlescent pigments and mica-containing coatings. Demand for ground mica in smaller specialty markets such as coated micas, cosmetics, nylon and polyester resins, and polypropylene composites, is expected to have an annual growth rate slightly higher than that of the entire ground mica industry. Consumption of block and sheet mica is expected to increase slowly as demand increases in a few specialty markets, such as electronics. A shortage of domestic high-quality block mica is expected to continue because of the generally low percentage of high-quality mica in deposits currently being mined, mostly from pegmatites. Future supplies of all forms of mica are expected to come increasingly from imports, primarily from Brazil, Canada, China, Finland and India. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Mica: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 120–121, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025 Nitrogen- Ammonia by L.E. Apodaca, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Ammonia production in the United States was estimated to be 14 Mt of nitrogen (N) content in 2024, compared with 13.8 Mt of N in 2023. In 2024, U.S. producers operated at about 80 percent of their rated capacity (excluding plants that were idle for the entire year). Apparent consumption was estimated to be 15 Mt of N content in 2024. The United States along with Russia were the world’s third-ranked ammonia producers after China and India. Urea, ammonium nitrate, nitric acid, ammonium phosphates, and ammonium sulfate, in descending order of quantity produced, were the major derivatives of ammonia produced in the United States. Ammonia was produced domestically by 18 companies at 37 plants in 17 states during 2024. About 55 percent of total U.S. ammonia production capacity was based in Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas because of those states’ large reserves of natural gas, the dominant domestic feedstock for ammonia production.Approximately 88 percent of domestic ammonia apparent consumption was for fertilizer use, including anhydrous ammonia for direct application, urea, ammonium nitrates, ammonium phosphates and other nitrogen compounds. Ammonia also was used to produce explosives, plastics, synthetic fibers and resins, and numerous other chemical compounds. Foreign trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, imports of ammonia (N content) was 1.7 Mt in 2024 compared with 1.72 Mt in 2023. Canada (52 percent) and Trinidad and Tobago (42 percent) were the leading sources of U.S. ammonia imports. U.S. ammonia exports decreased by 5 percent to 849 kt of N content in 2024 from 890 kt of N content in 2023. Ammonia exports were primarily shipped to Morocco (35 percent) and Norway (26 percent). Prices U.S. Gulf Coast ammonia prices in 2024 were estimated to average $440/st, 6 percent lower than the average in 2023. The Gulf Coast ammonia price was $478/st at the beginning of 2024, decreased to $364/st in late May and increased to $519/st by year-end. Natural gas is often used as the feedstock to produce ammonia fertilizers, and the cost of natural gas can account for 70 to 90 percent of the production costs. The Henry Hub spot price for natural gas ranged between $1.25 and $3.25/million Btu for most of the year, with an average of about $2.1/million Btu. Natural-gas prices in 2024 were lower than in 2023 — a result of above-average storage levels of natural gas and warmer-than-average winter weather. The Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, projected that the Henry Hub spot prices for natural gas would average $3.1/million Btu in 2025. Outlook Low natural-gas prices in the United States made it economical for companies to upgrade existing ammonia plants and construct new nitrogen facilities. The additional capacity has reduced ammonia imports (Fig. 1). Expansion in the U.S. ammonia industry in the next five years is expected to increase capacity by about 1.4 Mt/a, which includes decarbonized ammonia projects. Global ammonia capacity is expected to increase by a total of 7 percent during the next four years. Capacity additions were expected in places with low-cost natural gas such as Asia, Eastern Europe and North America. As part of the capacity increase, decarbonized ammonia plants have been proposed in several countries but mainly in North America. Consumption of ammonia for fertilizers is expected to increase in Latin America and eastern Asia. Figure 1: U.S. supply and apparent consumption of ammonia, 2004–2024. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey data) Large corn plantings maintain the continued demand for nitrogen fertilizers in the United States. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. corn growers planted 37 million hectares of corn in crop year 2024 (July 1, 2023, through June 30, 2024), 3 percent less than in crop year 2023. Corn acreage in crop year 2025 is expected to decrease because of anticipated lower returns for corn compared with those of other crops. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral commodity summaries 2025—Nitrogen (Fixed)-Ammonia: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 128–129, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025 Peat by Gaurav Jha, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad Peatlands are ecosystems that are present worldwide and are made up of water and land. Worldwide, peatland covers 3 percent of the Earth’s land surface and harbors around storage of 600 Gt of carbon. Peat is a renewable, organic, natural, fibrous biomass material, which is a product of gradual decomposition of long-lying sedimentation of organic matter under anaerobic conditions. Peatlands also act as a carbon sink that supports carbon-neutral goals; however, these peatlands require space and water bodies for growth that can be disastrous to water bodies. In 2023, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reserved a 55-acre peatland to support peat growth and to recharge water levels. Countries including Finland, Ireland and the United Kingdom are slowly phasing out peat harvesting/utilization for energy applications as their energy requirement is fulfilled by renewable sources of energy. Several conservation agencies, federal institutions and universities in the United States plan to decrease the use of peat and install water management infrastructure that can help in peatlands restoration. As an initiative, Ireland has planned to stop peat harvesting by 2030 completely. To achieve the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement requires the restoration/formation of 1 million hectares of peatlands in Europe every year, and the same must be done for the formation of 2 million hectares of peatlands worldwide. Consumption and end uses Approximately 70 percent of peat is used in agriculture globally, and the rest is utilized in other industrial applications. Peat has significant application in horticulture and agriculture as a plant growth and soil-amendment medium due to its fibrous and porous nature. Another area where peat is useful is in the industrial filtration process to remove toxic constituents in effluents from mine waste streams, municipal drainage and industrial process water. Production, imports, exports and consumption According to the U.S. Geological Survey’s (USGS) 2025 Mineral Commodity Summary, peat production in the United States in 2024 was approximately 350 kt, and imports were 1.3 Mt. The top three producing states were Florida, Maine and Minnesota, which accounted for 52 percent of the quantity of peat sold. Exports from the United States in 2024 were approximately 50 kt. The value of domestic peat sold in 2024 was approximately $12 million in 2024. Apparent consumption of peat in the United States in 2024 was approximately 1.6 Mt. World production was approximately 20 Mt in 2024, an increase of approximately 100 kt over 2023. Leading peat producers are Finland, Canada, Latvia, Belarus and Sweden. Approximately 83 percent of the global extraction of peat takes place in Europe. Outlook Concerns about climate change prompted several countries to plan to decrease or eliminate the use of peat, owing to peatland’s ability to act as a carbon sink. Global attempts are being made to restore the peatlands to accelerate the carbon neutrality impact while limiting peat usage for horticulture and agriculture purposes. Peat is a renewable resource, continuing to accumulate on 60 percent of global peatlands. However, the volume of global peatlands has been decreasing at a rate of 0.05 percent per year owing to harvesting and land development. Prices The average domestic price for peat, free-on-board mine basis, was $24/t, an increase of $4/t over 2023. References Peatland Atlas 2023, 2023, Facts and figures about wet climate guardiansU.S. Geological Survey, 2024, Mineral Commodity SummariesShiliu Cao, 2019, Research and Application of Peat in Agriculture, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 384 012174; DOI 10.1088/1755-1315/384/1/012174David J. Boron, Earl W. Evans, Jeffrey M. Peterson, 1987, An overview of peat research, utilization, and environmental considerations, International Journal of Coal Geology, Volume 8, Issues 1–2, 1987, pp. 1-3, DOI: 10.1016/0166-5162(87)90020-6 Perlite by Kristi J. Simmons, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Perlite, an amorphous siliceous volcanic glass containing 2 to 5 percent water, is commonly light gray to black in its natural state. Found globally, it is most often extracted through openpit mining. When rapidly heated to about 900 °C, the contained water converts to steam causing the ore to expand up to 20 times its original size. The resulting material, which is lightweight and bright white, has many properties suited for multiple industrial applications. Production In 2024, domestic processed crude perlite sold and used was estimated to be 440 kt with a value of $33 million compared with 410 kt with a value of $30.3 million in 2023. The average unit value of processed crude perlite sold and used by U.S. operations in 2024 was $75/t compared with $74/t in 2023. Crude ore production was from nine mines operated by six companies in six western states (Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico and Oregon). New Mexico continued to be the leading producing state. Processed crude perlite was expanded at 53 plants owned by 29 companies in 29 states. In December 2024, The Strong Co. Inc., headquartered in Pine Bluff, AR, announced the acquisition of all manufacturing assets of Ambient Minerals Inc. located in Benton, AR. Ambient Minerals Inc. specializes in perlite and vermiculite products. World production of perlite in 2024 was estimated to be 4.3 Mt, compared with 4.23 Mt in 2023. Consumption Expanded perlite’s lightweight, porous structure, combined with its durability, fire resistance, inert nature, low acoustic and thermal conductivity, and excellent water retention, make it useful across many industries and applications. In 2024, construction-related uses, such as concrete aggregates, formed products, and masonry- and cavity-fill insulation led the expanded perlite market with 47 percent of total sales and use. Horticultural uses by commercial growers and hobby gardeners followed with 16 percent of perlite consumption, while filter aid accounted for 14 percent. Usage data for fillers, previously a significant end use, was withheld starting in 2023 to protect proprietary company information. Fillers, along with various other uses for expanded perlite, comprised the remaining portion of its consumption. Domestic apparent consumption, defined as processed crude perlite sold or used by producers plus imports minus exports, increased in 2024 to an estimated 590 kt from 530 kt in 2023. Substitutes Substitutes for perlite vary depending on the application. In construction, materials such as diatomite, expanded clay and shale, pumice and slag can serve as alternatives. For horticultural uses, coco coir, pumice, vermiculite and wood pulp are alternative soil additives and are sometimes used in conjunction with perlite to enhance its effectiveness. Substitutes are chosen based on the specific demands of each application and their cost effectiveness. Foreign trade Trade data for perlite are not collected as a separate category by the U.S. Census Bureau but are included within the group “vermiculite, perlite and chlorites, unexpanded.” Domestic exports and imports for consumption of perlite were estimated based on information published by the U.S. Census Bureau and adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey based on average unit value, countries known to produce perlite, and likely port destinations to eliminate other minerals reported in the same group. An estimated 220 kt of perlite valued at $21 million was imported into the United States during 2024 compared with 140 kt valued at $19 million in 2023. The estimated average unit value of imported perlite in 2024 was $93/t, compared with $133/t in 2023. Most imports were estimated to have originated from Greece (97 percent). In 2024, exports of perlite were estimated to have increased to 26 kt valued at $4.3 million compared with 18 kt valued at $3.4 million. The estimated average unit value of exported perlite was $165/t in 2024 compared with $185/t in 2023. An estimated 99 percent of exports were shipped to Canada. International In 2024, global production of perlite was estimated to be 4.3 Mt compared with 4.23 Mt in 2023. The world’s leading producers were, in descending order of production, China (1.5 Mt), Turkey (1.2 Mt), Greece (850 kt), and the United States (440 kt). Most of China’s perlite production was presumed to be consumed internally while Greece and Turkey were the leading exporters of perlite. Imerys finalized the purchase of Chemviron’s European diatomite and perlite operations, a subsidiary of Calgon Carbon Corp., on Jan. 6, 2025. As part of the acquisition, Imerys took ownership of a perlite processing plant in Foggia, Italy. Outlook The perlite industry is well established and stable. The utilization of perlite is anticipated to stay consistent. Construction market fluctuations could affect consumption in related uses. The diverse properties of perlite continue to drive the exploration of innovative and emerging issues. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Perlite: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 132–133, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025PB Commercial, 2024, Strong Co. Inc. takes assets of Benton firm: The Pine Bluff Commercial, Dec. 4. (Accessed Jan. 16, 2025, at https://www.pbcommercial.com/news/2024/dec/04/strong-co-inc-takes-assets-of-benton-firm/)Imerys, 2025, Imerys completes the acquisition of Chemviron’s European diatomite and perlite business, Jan. 6. (Accessed Jan. 16, 2025, at https://www.imerys.com/media-room/press-releases/imerys-completes-acquisition-chemvirons-european-diatomite-and-perlite) Phosphate Rock by T.M. “Mike” Gurr, P.G., Gurr Professional Services Inc. and Stephanie Gurr, The Vertex Companies LLC Production and consumption For calendar year 2024, phosphate ore was mined by five companies at 10 mines in four states for an estimated 20 Mt of marketable product (representing 64.3 percent of the domestic production capacity of 31.1 Mt), making the United States responsible for 8.3 percent of the world production of 240 Mt (Table 1). Calendar year 2024 production quantities were similar to 2023 production quantities.The last five years of phosphate production for China, Morocco and the United States are presented (Table 1). Exports and imports There were no reported U.S. exports of phosphate rock in crop year 2024 nor any reported exports of phosphate rock since crop year 2004. Approximately 25 percent of the diammonium phosphate (DAP), monoammonium phosphate (DAP) and triple super phosphate TSP fertilizer produced in calendar year 2024 was exported. Imports of phosphate rock in calendar 2024 are estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) at 3.39 Mt as compared to 2023 imports of 2.59 Mt. Imports were from Morocco (2 percent) and Peru (98 percent). Uses The manufacturing of fertilizers and the production of animal feed supplements account for more than 95 percent of phosphate rock consumption. Major fertilizers include DAP, MAP and TSP. The balance is used in a variety of products, such as vitamins, pharmaceuticals, soft drinks, toothpaste, flame retardants, glass, photographic film and other consumer goods. Continued growth of the world population and the need for dependable food supplies underscore the need for phosphate fertilizers. There is no natural or synthetic substitute for phosphorus, which is essential for life in all growing things, plants and animals alike. Prices The 2024 calendar year average price at the mine was reported at $129.09/t, which is 12.4 percent lower than the calendar year 2023 average price of $147.32/t (Table 2). The value of the imported phosphate in calendar year 2024 of $128.91/t also decreased from $147.32/t in the prior calendar year (Table 2). Industry news There are currently only two phosphate rock producers mining in Florida, one in the Central District (Mosaic) and one in the North District (Nutrien Ltd). There is only one producer in North Carolina: Nutrien Ltd. In the western states of Idaho and Utah, there are currently three producers, Bayer, Itafos and J.R. Simplot, which are operating five mines. One new mine has opened, and another has been permitted, but little construction has occurred. Saudi Arabia’s Ma’aden’s phosphate mine is currently producing up to 5 Mt/a of concentrated phosphate rock from the beneficiation plant. Peru is also producing close to 5 Mt/a. Mosaic sold its interest in Ma’aden in exchange for shares of Ma’aden. In addition, Mosaic has signed an agreement to sell the idled Patos de Minas phosphate mine in Brazil. Environmental, regulatory and reclamation issues Several Florida phosphate mines, chemical plants and fertilizer shipments were idled for several weeks in September and October of 2025 because of storm damage from Hurricane Helene and Hurricane Milton. Trends and outlook Global phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) production is expected to increase from 47.5 Mt in 2024 to 51.8 Mt by 2028. The leading growth regions are forecasted to be Asia and South America. Canada has two new mines and associated purified acid plants under development to produce lithium-iron-phosphate battery cathode active material (CAM) and produce iron phosphate for the manufacture of lithium batteries. References Data compiled predominantly from personal knowledge, contacts in the industry, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Mineral Industry Surveys: USCOE and BLM EIS documents; personal communication with Stephen Jasinski, USGS, Bill Stout, US BLM field office in Idaho; news and financial reports for Mosaic, Ma’aden, Office Che’rifien des Phosphates, Vale, Fosyeiki S.A.C, Itafos and Simplot; indexmundi; World Bank, National Rural News, CRU; Reuters.com, Nutrien Ltd. and various other news and trade publications. Personal communication, Hardee County Mining Department, April 2024 Potash by S.M. Jasinski, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Potash encompasses a variety of mined and manufactured salts, all of which contain the element potassium in water-soluble form. The term potash, however, can also refer specifically to potassic fertilizers, which are potassium chloride (KCl or the mineral sylvite), potassium sulfate (K2SO4 or sulfate of potash (SOP), usually a manufactured product), and SOPM (K2SO4 • 2MgSO4 or langbeinite or double sulfate of potash magnesia). Muriate of potash (MOP) for fertilizer use is an agriculturally acceptable mix of KCl (95 percent pure or greater) and sodium chloride (halite) that includes minor amounts of other nontoxic minerals from the mined ore and is neither the crude ore sylvinite nor pure sylvite. Because the potassium content of its common salts varies, the potash industry has established a common standard of measurement for defining a product’s potassium content (or purity) related to the approximate potassium oxide (K2O) content. Production In 2024, U.S. potash production was estimated to be 420 kt of K2O equivalent, 8 percent higher than in 2023 and was valued at an estimated $530 million, 6 percent higher than in 2023. Domestic sales were estimated to be 440 kt of K2O equivalent, 10 percent higher than in 2023. In the United States, MOP was produced by Intrepid Potash Inc. from solar evaporation and solution mines in New Mexico and Utah. Mosaic Co. and Intrepid each produced SOPM from underground mines in New Mexico. Compass Minerals International Inc. produced SOP from solar evaporation of brine from the Great Salt Lake in Utah. SOPM and SOP accounted for the majority of U.S. production in 2024. World production was estimated to be 48 Mt of K2O equivalent, 11 percent higher than in 2023. Canada (15 Mt), Russia (9 Mt), Belarus (7 Mt) and China (6.3 Mt) were the leading producers, accounting for 78 percent of total production. Canada, the leading potash-producing country and exporter in the world, accounted for 38 percent of global capacity. All production in Canada was from Saskatchewan in 2024. Potash was produced by three companies: Nutrien Ltd., which controls 24 percent of world MOP capacity at six mines; Mosaic, which operated three mines; and K+S Aktiengesellschaft, which operated one mine.Belarus production nearly returned to pre-2022 levels, when the European Union and the United States placed sanctions on the state-run Belarusian potash-exporting company. Exports from Belarus, however, were still much lower than before 2022, when Lithuania terminated the rail contract that allowed Belarus to send potash to the Baltic Sea port of Klaipeda for export. In 2024, Belarus exported potash via several Russian ports. It also sent shipments by rail, primarily to China and Iran. Consumption U.S. potash consumption was estimated to have increased by 8 percent to 6,400 kt of K2O equivalent compared with 5,900 kt of K2O equivalent in 2023. The increase in consumption of potash was attributed mainly to lower potash prices and favorable weather conditions in the planting season compared with 2023. According to a report from the International Fertilizer Association, world consumption of potash fertilizers in 2024 was estimated to have increased to 38.8 Mt from 37.5 Mt in 2023. Asia and South America were the leading consuming regions. Because it is a source of soluble potassium, about 90 percent of potash consumed globally is used as fertilizer (plant nutrient). Potassium is one of the three primary nutrients required for plant growth and maturation; the others are fixed nitrogen and soluble phosphorus. The remaining 10 percent of potash consumed is used to produce potassium chemicals, which are used in such applications as aluminum recycling, animal feed supplements, oil-well drilling mud, snow and ice melting, soap manufacturing, steel heat-treating and water softening. Trade According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. imports of potash increased by 5 percent to 5.97 Mt of K2O equivalent in 2024, compared with 5.68 Mt of K2O equivalent in 2023, The United States was 93 percent net import reliant for potash in 2024. Canada (79 percent), Russia (15 percent) and Israel (3 percent) were the leading suppliers for all forms of potash combined. The United States is not a significant exporter of potash. In 2024, exports decreased to 100 kt of K2O from 165 kt of K2O in 2023. Prices The Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada spot price for standard potash began the year averaging $287/t ($261/st) and ended the year at $260/t ($236/st). The U.S. price for SOP began 2024 in the range of $640 to $680/st and ended the year in the range of $600 to $630/st. The U.S. price for SOPM, free on board Carlsbad, NM, began the year in the range of $290 to $330/st and ended the year in the range of $325 to $365/st. Outlook Potash is an essential fertilizer nutrient for which no substitute exists. A growing world population and its need for food will require continued increases in potash production and consumption. Additionally, increased ethanol production from corn and other crops will require proportional increases in fertilizer use. World annual potash production capacity was projected to increase to about 76.0 Mt in 2028 from 65.2 Mt in 2024. Most of the increase would be MOP from new mines and expansion projects in Laos and Russia. Other new MOP mines in Belarus, Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, Morocco, Spain and the United States were planned to begin operation past 2028. The conflict between Russian and Ukraine, coupled with sanctions on Belarus, may lead to a shift in world potash supply patterns. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Potash: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 138–139, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025 Pumice and Pumicite by R.D. Crangle Jr., National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Pumice is a volcanic rock formed through the cooling of air-pocketed lava, which results in a highly porous, low-density rock. The low density allows some pumice to float on water. Large pumice rafts, consisting in some instances of thousands of individual pieces of pumice clumped together, are a unique geologic phenomenon and have been documented to be as long as 30 km and to have drifted for several years in oceanic waters. Pumicite is defined as grains, flakes, threads and (or) shards of volcanic glass finer than 4 mm in diameter. Pumicite and volcanic ash are descriptive terms that are often used interchangeably. The porous, lightweight properties of pumice are well suited for its main use as an aggregate in lightweight building blocks and assorted building products. Production and price Mine production of pumice in the United States during 2024 was estimated to be 450 kt, 3 percent more than in 2023. The unit value of pumice was estimated to be $42/t in 2024, slightly higher than in 2023. Pumice was produced at 10 operations in California, Idaho, Kansas, New Mexico and Oregon. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. pumice exports totaled 11.2 kt, 5 percent more than in 2023. Imports totaled 150 kt, almost three times more than 53 kt imported in 2023. World resources of pumice are adequate for the foreseeable future. However, transportation costs may encourage development of deposits closer to markets. Total world production of pumice was estimated to be 18 Mt in 2024, 3 percent more than in 2023. Pumice is used more extensively as a building material outside the United States, which explains the large global production of pumice relative to that of the United States. The estimated top world producers in 2024 were: Turkey (8.2 Mt), Greece (1 Mt), Saudi Arabia (980 kt), Algeria (900 kt), Uganda (830 kt) and Ecuador (800 kt). Processing and consumption Pumice is usually extracted by simple openpit methods using rippers, bulldozers and front-end loaders. Processing typically is limited to drying, crushing and screening, although some abrasive grades may require fine grinding and classification. Lightweight pumice building blocks, the primary use for pumice, may be sawn into a variety of shapes and sizes. In 2024, other major applications included abrasives and horticulture (including landscaping). Minor applications include the use of pumice as an absorbent, as a concrete aggregate and admixture, as a filter aid, and as a traction enhancer for tires. A small percentage of pumice was used in abrasive-type products, including pencil erasers, polishing agents for circuit boards and television monitors, chinchilla chew stones, exfoliants in cosmetics and the removal of henna tattoos, and a variety of heavy-duty hand cleaners. Imports were primarily used as raw material for building block (for example, cinderblock) and other lightweight aggregate applications. Several substitutes exist for pumice in agriculture, in horticulture, as an aggregate, as a concrete additive and in other end products. Outlook Although pumice and pumicite are plentiful in the western United States, legal challenges and public land designations could limit access to known deposits. Pumice and pumicite production are sensitive to mining and transportation costs and major markets located in the eastern states. An increase in fuel prices would likely lead to increases in production expenditures and sales prices; imports and competing materials could become attractive substitutes for domestic products. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Pumice and Pumicite: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 140–141, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025-pumice.pdf Salt by Cody Vining, RESPEC Salt remains the most cost-effective material on the market for maintaining full mobility on roads and highways and preventing accidents during the winter snow season. This mineral is also the most useful component in regenerating the ion exchange resins that are used for water conditioning, is critical in the production of animal feed products and is the most ubiquitous ingredient used in the food industry. The method used to obtain salt varies depending on the end benefit, with salt being derived from rock salt, salt in brine, vacuum pan salt and solar salt. Production Domestic annual salt production in the United States differs from year to year and is estimated at approximately 40 Mt in 2024, which is slightly less than the estimated 42 Mt in 2023 and is in line with the five-year and 10-year averages of approximately 41.9 and 42.5 Mt, respectively. At the beginning of 2024, 64 salt-producing plants existed in 16 states, one more than reported in 2023, with approximately 95 percent of the total production coming from Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Texas and Utah. Total world production in 2024 is estimated at 275.4 Mt, which is approximately 10 Mt more than the revised 2023 production of 273.7 Mt (Table 1). China remains the world’s largest salt producer at approximately 55 Mt, while the United States and India (the world’s second- and third-largest producers, respectively) produced an estimated 40 and 28 Mt in 2024, respectively. These three countries combined account for 45 percent of the total world production, while other countries collectively produce a total of approximately 157 Mt (55 percent of the total world production). Consumption For 2024, the total U.S. salt apparent consumption (domestic sold or used minus exports plus imports) is an estimated 51 Mt. This is consistent with the previous three years with apparent consumption in the range of 55 to 57 Mt, but remains significantly lower than 2018 and 2019, both of which had an apparent consumption greater than 61 Mt. The source of the consumed salt for 2024 was salt in brine (42 percent), rock salt (40 percent), vacuum pan salt (9 percent) and solar salt (9 percent). Exports and imports Most of the domestic production (95.25 percent) was consumed within the United States in 2024, with approximately 1.9 Mt exported. The estimated 2024 exports are less than 2.3 Mt exported in 2023 and are aligned with the five-year average for exports, which is approximately 1.3 Mt. To meet demand in 2024, the United States imported an estimated 14 Mt of salt (27.5 percent of total apparent consumption). These imports originated from Canada (29 percent), Chile (27 percent), Mexico (14 percent), Egypt (8 percent) and several other producing countries (22 percent). Prices The total value of U.S. salt sales in 2024 was estimated to be $2.5 billion, a slight decrease from $2.6 billion in 2023. The average price of vacuum pan salt in 2024 was $230/t, a modest price increase from $200/t in 2017 and a $10/t increase from 2023. The average price of solar salt was $140/t in 2024, the same as in 2023 but a 40 percent increase from $100/t in 2017. The average price of rock salt was $56/t in 2024, a decrease from the five-year high of $61/t reported in 2023. The price of salt in brine matched a 10-year high of $10/t in 2024. Outlook The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) expects demand for salt in brine, which is used in the chloralkali industry, to continue to increase as demand for caustic soda and polyvinyl chloride increases globally, especially in Asia. Reference The production and usage data used in this report relied almost entirely on research conducted by the minerals commodity specialists at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and the key document referenced was: U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025, https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2025 Soda Ash by Debashis (Deba) Das, RESPEC Production According to the U.S. Geological Survey, domestic soda ash (sodium carbonate) produced in 2024 was estimated at 12 Mt for a total market value of $2.5 billion, 10 percent more than in 2023. The U.S. soda ash industry consists of four companies in Wyoming, operating five plants, and one company in California (Searles Valley Minerals Inc.), operating one plant. Their combined nameplate capacity was 13.9 Mt/a. China was the world’s largest producer of soda ash (36 Mt, mostly synthetic), followed by the United States and Turkey. These three countries produced around 81 percent of the world’s soda ash in 2023. Consumption and end uses The reported consumption of soda ash in the United States in 2024 was around 4.2 Mt, down 6 percent from 2023. An estimated 45 percent of the total soda ash produced in 2024 went into glass products, with about 29 percent used in chemicals and the remaining for soaps/detergents, flue-gas desulfurization, distributors, paper and other miscellaneous uses. Exports and imports In 2024, the United States exported about 7.4 Mt of soda ash, more than one-half of its total production, and imported around 10 kt, mostly from Turkey. Prices Soda ash prices, on a free-on-board plant basis, in the United States increased from $211/t in 2023 to an estimated $220/t in 2024. As of April 2025, soda ash prices in the United States have shown a steady upward trend, reflecting a recovery from the declines seen in 2023, according to Procurement Resource. Trends and outlook According to OpenPR, the global soda ash market is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of approximately 4.1 percent from 2024 to 2031, reaching an estimated value of $26.64 billion by 2031. This growth is primarily fueled by increased demand for soda ash in the glass industry, solar energy and water treatment. WE Soda completed the acquisition of two large soda ash facilities in Wyoming, increasing its total capacity to 9.5 Mt/a. Plans are underway to expand the Westvaco facility by an additional 1 Mt to 1.5 Mt/a. According to Mills (2024), approximately 18 Mt of new soda ash capacity are expected to be added globally between 2023 and 2028, with 61 percent of this expansion occurring in China and 34 percent in the United States. These developments indicate a robust growth trajectory for the soda ash industry, driven by technological advancements, environmental initiatives and increasing demand across various sectors. References Mills, J., 2024. A global overview of the soda ash market. Sep. 25. Retrieved from https://www.glass-international.com/features/a-global-overview-of-the-soda-ash-marketOpenPR, 2025, Soda ash market is going to booming growth 2025 with top key players analysis through 2032 |Solvay, Tata Chemicals Ltd, CIECH SA, Ciner Resources Corporation. Feb. 17. Retrieved from https://www.openpr.com/news/3870812/soda-ash-market-is-going-to-booming-growth-2025-with-top-keyProcurement Resource, 2025, Soda ash price trend and forecast. Retrieved from https://www.procurementresource.com/resource-center/soda-ash-price-trendsScott, A., 2025, Natural soda ash gets investment boost. March 6. Retrieved from https://cen.acs.org/business/mergers- percent26-acquisitions/Natural-soda-ash-investment-boost/103/web/2025/03U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Soda Ash Talc and Pyrophyllite by E.F. McCarthy, Performance Minerals LLC Talc is a platy, hydrous magnesium silicate mineral. It has the theoretical composition 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O, which equates to 31.7 percent MgO, 63.5 percent SiO2 and 4.8 percent H2O. It occurs in a wide variety of mineral habitats in association with other minerals like carbonates and chlorite. In addition, atoms such as divalent iron can substitute for magnesium in the talc lattice. Depending on the levels of these other minerals or atomic substitutions, the talc ore may not have commercial utility, but many natural talc-chlorite and talc-carbonate ores are milled directly to make saleable products, especially in applications like coatings. Other applications, especially plastics and technical ceramics, require high talc content and minimal levels of specific other elements or minerals. In its pure powder form, talc is naturally oleophilic, soft, relatively inert and white in color. There are several ways talc can be classified; the natural crystal size of the talc is an example. Microcrystalline talc has a natural crystal size of 5 to 45 µm and macrocrystalline talc crystals are 50 to 150 µm. The macro grades have been repeatedly sheared in geological time, resulting in larger, more planar structure. The micro grades are particularly good absorbents for paper pitch control, excellent reinforcing agents for crosslinked rubbers and have good pressing characteristics for structural ceramics. The macro grades are better in reinforcing thermoplastic polymers and paper coating. Pyrophyllite is a platy, hydrous aluminum silicate. It has the theoretical composition Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O, which equates to 28.3 percent Al2O3, 66.7 percent SiO2 and 5 percent H2O. It also occurs with other minerals, most notably quartz, pyrite and mica. Some of these natural mixtures have excellent machining qualities most notably wonderstone (South Africa) and pagodite (China). In its pure form, it is also oleophilic, soft, relatively inert and white and used competitively with talc in Brazil and parts of Asia in paper and coatings. Production and consumption Three companies operated five talc producing mines in the United States in 2023, with production estimated to have increased to 530 kt. Magris Talc operated one mine in Montana and one in Vermont; Barretts Minerals operated two mines in Montana and Daltile operated one mine for its internal use in West Texas. Magris Talc also operates one mine in Ontario, Canada. Barretts Minerals beneficiates talc via color sorting and froth floatation at its plant in Dillon, MT. RT Vanderbilt and Resco Products operated pyrophyllite mines in North Carolina and Trinity Resources recovers the mineral from old tailings in Newfoundland. Pyrophyllite production data were not reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).Cimbar Performance Minerals mills processed imported talc ore at plants in Texas, Indiana and Ohio and IMI Fabi also processes imported talc ore in plants in West Virginia and New York. Multiple European and Asian companies export finished talc products directly into the United States. Talc imports into the United States were reported at 210 kt in 2024, a decrease from the 235 kt reported in 2023. However, there are indications that both these values are underreported. (The imports to the United States do not match those reported by the exporting countries, and the biggest U.S. markets in plastics and paint were strong in 2023 and 2024.) Pakistan, Canada, China, Australia, the Netherlands and India are the major import sources. It is believed that the talc coming from Pakistan is all sourced in tribal controlled regions of southern Afghanistan. The United States exported 200 kt of talc in 2024, with Mexico, Canada and China being the major destinations. Exports decreased slightly from 2023. The average value of U.S. mined talc ore was $51/t and the average for domestic products from the mills was $333/t. The average value of imported ore was $292/t and that of finished product $796/t. The average value of exported products (almost all finished) was $597/t. Outside of the United States, China is the world’s largest producer (and consumer) of talc, followed by India, Pakistan/Afghanistan, Brazil, France and Finland. Germany, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, the Netherlands and Mexico are major importers. Uses and applications According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the major uses for talc mined and sold in the United States were plastics (32 percent), ceramics (21 percent), paint (18 percent), paper (9 percent), roofing (8 percent) and rubber (6 percent). The major use for imported talc is believed to be plastics. In plastics, talc is used primarily for reinforcing polypropylene compounds for automotive parts such as bumpers, interior panels, under-the-hood parts, and trim. It is also used in rigid packaging and for reinforcing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in construction applications like wood plastic composites. In ceramics, talc is used in wall and large-form floor tile as well as in honeycomb cordierite for automotive catalyst supports and filters. In paint, talc is used in primers and industrial anticorrosion coatings and in paper for absorbing pitch in pulp mills. Pyrophyllite is sold for ceramic tile, refractories, paint and as an insecticide carrier. The use of machined imported wonderstone for the manufacture of synthetic diamonds has declined dramatically as the old high-temperature/high-pressure process is phased out in favor of the new chemical-vapor-deposition process. Business developments In May, Minerals Technologies announced the sale of its Barretts Minerals subsidiary to Chicago-based private equity firm Riverspan Partners for $32 million. The company continues to operate as Barretts Minerals. In September 2024, a Massachusetts jury awarded a private party a $39 million verdict against privately owned talc importer Cimbar Performance Minerals. The private party alleged that talc supplied by Cimbar, used in a medical procedure, had caused mesothelioma and subsequent death. Regulatory In April 2023, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released its report on annual testing of consumer products containing talc for asbestos. No asbestos was detected in 50 products tested. On Dec. 26, 2024, the FDA issued a proposed rule for testing of talc products to be used in cosmetics. The rule would require all products to be tested by polarized light microscopy (PLM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to ensure the absence of asbestiform materials. This was required as part of the Modernization of Cosmetics Regulatory Act (MOCRA). In the United States, talc retains its “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) status. There was also significant regulatory action internationally. In July, the Lyon, France-based International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) reclassified talc into group 2A, or “probably carcinogenic to humans.” This was a controversial ruling as there is very limited medical mechanistic evidence of carcinogenicity. Some commentators have surmised that it is a reflection of the agency understanding that much of the talc used in the underdeveloped world contains asbestos. In September, the risk assessment committee of the European Chemicals Agency recommended that talc should be categorized as a class 1B carcinogen and STOT-RE1. This means it would be treated as a probable human carcinogen and the STOT (specific target organ toxicity) rating is for damage to lungs on repeated inhalation. If confirmed, this would almost certainly lead to the banning of talc in cosmetics within a few years in the European Union and pressure to remove it from many consumer products. Reference U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025 Tin by Shivakumar Angadi, CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology Tin is a silvery-white, soft and highly crystalline metal known for its malleability, ductility and excellent resistance to corrosion. With an atomic number of 50 and the symbol Sn (from the Latin stannum), tin has played a crucial role in human technological development. It continues to be indispensable in many modern applications. Historically, tin was a key component in one of humanity’s earliest and most transformative technological advances: the Bronze Age. Around 3,000 BCE, tin was alloyed with copper to produce bronze — a harder and more durable metal used to make weapons, tools, armour and ceremonial objects. This innovation marked a significant leap in material science and civilization. In the modern era, tin continues to hold industrial significance, particularly due to its nontoxic nature and chemical stability. The most prominent use of tin today is in soldering, especially in electronics, where tin-based solders (often alloyed with lead or silver) are used to join metal components. Tin also finds applications in plating (tinplate), alloys, chemical industry, glass manufacturing and decorative arts, among others. Occurrence Cassiterite, the principal ore of tin, is found in both alluvial (placer) and primary hard-rock deposits. Alluvial deposits are formed through the weathering of tin-bearing rocks, followed by the transport and accumulation of cassiterite in riverbeds and sediments. These deposits are especially prevalent in Southeast Asia, with major occurrences in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand. In contrast, primary hard-rock deposits are typically associated with late-stage granitic intrusions. Here, cassiterite occurs in veins and fissures within granites and surrounding country rocks. Such deposits are predominantly found in China, South America and Australia. Globally, tin reserves are estimated at approximately 4.3 Mt, with significant concentrations in China, Indonesia, Brazil, Bolivia, Russia, Peru, Malaysia, Australia and Thailand. Production In 2024, global refined tin production declined by 2.7 percent year over year to approximately 371,200 t, primarily due to significant supply disruptions in key producing regions. One of the major setbacks was the continued closure of the Man Maw tin mine in Myanmar, which had been suspended in August 2023 for an industry audit and remained nonoperational throughout 2024. This closure drastically reduced tin concentrate exports to China, tightening global supply. Additionally, tin production in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) was impacted by armed conflict, with the Bisie Mine, responsible for around 6 percent of global tin output in 2023, facing temporary shutdowns due to the advance of the M23 rebel group. Indonesia, another major producer, also saw its output drop from 70 kt in 2022 to 52 kt in 2023, largely due to regulatory and environmental challenges. Despite these setbacks, China, Myanmar, Indonesia, Peru, the DRC and Brazil remained leading contributors to global tin output. Meanwhile, market forecasts indicate moderate growth, with tin demand expected to rise in sectors such as electronics, renewable energy and electric vehicles, although future supply will remain vulnerable to geopolitical, regulatory and environmental factors. Consumption Tin consumption shows variability across industries over time. During the 1970s, significant quantities of tin were consumed by tin plate industries in the U.S. and European countries, although consumption rates in these sectors were either stable or declined by 2000. Conversely, since 2000, there has been a surge in tin consumption in electronic soldering applications in Asian countries, particularly China and Japan. Solder industries emerged as the largest consumers, accounting for approximately 50 percent of the tin produced in 2022, followed by chemical and tin plate industries. Reports indicate that global tin consumption maintained a plateau of 300 to 350 kt during the last decade, but post-pandemic, it experienced a slight increase to about 380 kt, reflecting evolving consumption patterns and shifting industrial demands. Processing Cassiterite (SnO2) is the primary mineral from which tin is economically extracted, typically found in both placer (alluvial) and hard-rock deposits, often associated with lighter gangue minerals. Beneficiation of cassiterite predominantly involves gravity concentration methods such as jigs, spirals and shaking tables. Enhanced gravity concentrators have been developed to improve efficiency, particularly for finer particles. To maximize tin recovery, flotation techniques are employed to recover fine cassiterite from gravity tailings, using selective collectors and specialized reagents that have evolved over time. These beneficiation processes have undergone significant advancements, including modifications to flowsheets, incorporation of high-efficiency equipment, and adoption of novel chemical reagents. Once a tin concentrate is produced, it undergoes smelting and refining. The most common refining method is pyrometallurgical, where tin concentrate is reduced with carbon at high temperatures in a furnace to produce crude tin. This crude tin is then refined further using processes such as liquation, electrolytic refining or vacuum distillation to remove impurities like iron, lead and arsenic for the production of high-purity tin suitable for industrial applications such as soldering, plating and alloy production. References Wikipedia, Tinplate, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TinplateU.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2025, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025.pdfInternational Tin Association, 2025, Global tin production falls in 2024 on supply disruptions, March 13, www.internationaltin.orgS.I. Angadi, T. Sreenivas, Ho-Seok Jeon, Sang-Ho Baek, B. K. Mishra, 2015, A review of cas-siterite beneficiation fundamentals and plant practices, Minerals Engineering 70:178–200 Titanium by Deepak Nayak, Mineral Processing Department, CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology Titanium minerals that are economically important include ilmenite, leucoxene and rutile. Titanium itself is widely recognized for its corrosion resistance and high strength-to-weight ratio. About 90 percent of titanium is used in the form of titanium dioxide (TiO2), which serves as a white pigment in paints, paper and plastics. The quality of TiO2 pigment is determined by its purity, refractive index, particle size and surface properties. Production Global production of titanium mineral concentrates in 2024 was estimated to be 9.35 Mt of contained TiO2, slightly less than in 2023 (Tables 1 and 2). Less than 10 percent of global production was attributed to natural rutile. Rounded to one significant digit, U.S. production of titanium concentrates was estimated to be 100 kt of contained TiO2. The Chemours Co. produced titanium mineral concentrates in the United States at mining operations near Starke, FL, and Nahunta, GA. In California, Twin Pines Minerals LLC reprocessed mine tailings to produce mixed mineral concentrates containing titanium and zirconium.TiO2 pigment production in the United States in 2024 was estimated to be 850 kt, about 8 percent less than in 2023. Domestic consumption was estimated to have been 740 kt in 2024, a 14 percent decrease from 859 kt in 2023. U.S. producers of TiO2 pigment, all of which used the chloride process, were Chemours, INEOS Pigments USA Inc., Louisiana Pigment Co. L.P. and Tronox Ltd. Global titanium sponge production in 2024, excluding the United States, where production data were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data, was estimated to be 320 kt, unchanged from 2023 (Table 3). In the United States, titanium sponge was produced by Honeywell Electronic Materials Inc. in Utah. The 500-t/a plant supported the production of high-purity titanium in Fombell, PA. Foreign trade U.S. imports of titanium mineral concentrates included ilmenite, rutile, synthetic rutile and titanium slag. The United States was heavily reliant on imports of titanium mineral concentrates because domestic consumption of titanium minerals greatly exceeded domestic production capacity. U.S. imports were 600 kt based on estimated TiO2 equivalent, and the leading import sources were South Africa (32 percent), Madagascar (16 percent), Canada (13 percent) and Australia (11 percent). The United States was a net exporter of TiO2 pigments, exporting 360 kt in 2024 based on TiO2 equivalent. Figure 1: Average annual prices (unit values) for ilmenite, rutile and titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigments, 2014-2024. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau) U.S. producers of titanium ingot and downstream products depend on imports of titanium sponge and scrap. In 2024, titanium sponge imports were estimated at 40 kt, nearly matching the previous year’s high of 40.4 kt. The main sources of sponge imports were Japan (67 percent), Saudi Arabia (23 percent) and Kazakhstan (7 percent). Titanium scrap imports were estimated at 28 kt, primarily sourced from the United Kingdom (17 percent), Germany (12 percent), France and Japan (11 percent each), and Canada and South Korea (9 percent each). Prices According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau, which outlines imports for consumption, the average annual price (unit value) for ilmenite was $340/t in 2024, a decline of 7 percent compared to 2023. The price for bulk rutile was $1,310/t, a decrease of 10 percent. The U.S. import and export prices for TiO2 pigments decreased by 2 percent and 1 percent, respectively (Fig. 1). The average annual price for titanium sponge imported from Japan remained relatively stable, whereas that for titanium scrap was $8.7/kg, a decrease of 5 percent compared to 2023 (Fig. 2). Outlook The consumption of titanium mineral concentrates plays a crucial role in the production of TiO2 pigments, which are essential components in a variety of products, including paint, paper and plastics. The demand for these key applications is closely tied to fluctuations in the gross domestic product, as economic growth often drives increased manufacturing and consumption rates. Figure 2: Average annual prices (unit values) for titanium sponge and titanium scrap, 2014-2024. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau) In 2024, it was estimated that the domestic apparent consumption of titanium mineral concentrates remained steady compared to 2023, indicating a stable market for these materials despite external economic factors. Meanwhile, exports of titanium mineral concentrate experienced a decline; this decrease included mixed concentrates sourced from mine tailings, highlighting the industry’s ongoing challenges in balancing supply and demand. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Titanium Statistics and Information. Accessed May 7, 2025, at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/titanium-statistics-and-informationU.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025–Titanium Mineral ConcentratesU.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025–Titanium and Titanium Dioxide Tungsten by Surya Kanta Das, CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology Tungsten, also known as wolfram, is a critical metal known for its exceptional properties, including the highest melting point of all metals at 3,422 °C, remarkable hardness, high density of 19.25 g/cm³ and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. These characteristics make it indispensable in various applications. Primarily, tungsten is used in the form of tungsten carbide, essential to various industries such as mining, ordnance, aerospace, automotive, construction and metalworking. Additionally, tungsten-bearing alloys are employed in the manufacturing of electronics, power engineering tools, medical equipment, heating elements and filaments. Occurrence As of 2024, global tungsten reserves are estimated at 4.6 Mt. The average abundance of tungsten in the Earth’s crust is about 1.5 ppm. Tungsten-bearing minerals are typically found in compound forms attached to various silicates, oxides and halides. These minerals are generally located in diverse types of deposits, including skarn, vein/stockwork, porphyry, greisen, disseminated, stratabound, brine, placer and breccia formations. Despite the existence of numerous tungsten-bearing minerals worldwide, only scheelite (CaWO4) and wolframite ((Fe, Mn)WO4) are considered primary sources for tungsten extraction.Significant tungsten deposits are situated in the fold belts of the Far East (including South China, Thailand, Myanmar, South Korea and Japan), the Asiatic regions of the former Soviet Union (such as South Siberia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and the Caucasus), the eastern coastal belt of Australia, the Alpine fold belt extending from France to Turkey, Western Europe (notably the Variscan belt arcs from Germany and the Czech Republic through France and southwest England into Spain and Portugal), and the United States (notably the Rockies and Andes). Additional deposits are also present in Canada, Bolivia and Peru. Production Global tungsten production experienced an increase from 79,500 t in 2023 to 81 kt in 2024. China continues to dominate global tungsten production, contributing approximately 67 kt in 2024, which accounts for more than 80 percent of the global production. Vietnam follows as the second-largest producer, with an output of about 3,400 t in 2024. Other notable producers include Russia (2,000 t), Austria (800 t), Rwanda (1,200 t), Bolivia (1,600 t) and Spain (700 t). In addition to the primary mining production, a significant portion of tungsten is sourced from recycling efforts. Approximately 35 percent of tungsten metal is reclaimed from recycled scraps, such as metal drills, superalloys and tungsten carbide, and reintegrated into various end-use applications. Outlook Tungsten demand is closely linked to global economic conditions, with primary consumption in cemented carbides across industries such as automotive, aerospace, mining, construction and electronics. Market growth is driven by increasing demand in these sectors, along with expanding applications in medical, defense and electronics industries. Tungsten carbide remains the leading segment, widely used in cutting and drilling tools, while mill products like electrodes and filaments are also gaining importance, particularly in the electronics industry. China remains the dominant global supplier of tungsten, though production has been rising in countries such as Austria, Portugal, Russia, Spain and Vietnam. Additionally, tungsten recycling is becoming more prominent, supported by ongoing research into recovering tungsten from tailings and extracting values from low-grade resources. The growing adoption of electric vehicles and advancements in 3D printing further highlight the strong growth potential of the tungsten market. Vanadium by Desiree E. Polyak, National Minerals Information, Center, U.S. Geological Survey Vanadium is extracted from vanadiferous ores, slags and residues and converted into vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) or vanadium trioxide (V2O3). Most V2O5 and V2O3 are then converted into ferrovanadium (FeV). In 2024, most of the world’s vanadium supply came from either vanadiferous titanomagnetite (VTM) mineral concentrates or from steelmaking slags, which are generated during the production of steel from VTM. Production Industry convention for describing vanadium production typically applies the terms primary production (from mined ore as mineral concentrates from VTM or sandstone-hosted vanadium (with or without uranium)), joint production (from vanadium slags that are produced during steelmaking), and secondary production (from residues, industrial waste materials and spent catalysts) based on the source material for production. The United States did not produce any primary vanadium in 2024. Vanadium production in Utah from the mining of uraniferous sandstones on the Colorado Plateau ceased in early 2020 and has not restarted since. The United States continued to be a major producer of vanadium products from secondary sources such as spent catalysts, ashes and petroleum residues. In 2024, domestic secondary vanadium production was an estimated 8.2 kt of contained vanadium, a 26 percent increase from 2023. Secondary production was from processed waste materials to produce FeV, a variety of vanadium-bearing chemicals, specialty alloys and V2O5. In 2024, world production of primary vanadium — from ore, concentrate and slag — was 104 kt with the dominant producers being China, accounting for 67 percent of global production and Russia, accounting for 20 percent. South Africa (8 percent) and Brazil (5 percent) were the other global producers.Energy Fuels Inc.’s White Mesa Mill (operated by EFR White Mesa LLC), near Blanding, UT, had the only vanadium coproduct recovery circuit in the United States. However, Energy Fuels has not recovered vanadium from its existing tailings pond solutions since 2020. Energy Fuels did not produce or sell any vanadium in 2024 and had approximately 410 t of V2O5 in inventory. Global vanadium projects in different stages of development included Australia Vanadium Ltd.’s project in Australia, Richmond Vanadium Technology’s Richmond-Julia Creek project in Australia, Ferro-Alloy Resources Group’s Balasausqandiq project in Kazakhstan and Vanadium Resources’ (VR8) Steelpoortdrift project in South Africa. Bushveld Minerals Co. implemented significant operational changes in 2024, resulting in reduced vanadium production at its South African facilities, Vametco and Vanchem. Glencore plc’s Rhovan operation in South Africa was expected to maintain production, while secondary vanadium production was anticipated to continue to play an increasingly important role in the global supply of vanadium. Consumption Vanadium’s primary use is as a hardening agent in steel, in which it is critical for imparting strength, toughness and wear resistance. These properties are especially important in high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels, particularly for products in the construction industry and in tool steel. A smaller but essential use for vanadium is in titanium aerospace alloys for both commercial and military aircraft. Nonmetallurgical applications include catalysts, ceramics, electronics, large-scale energy storage and vanadium chemicals. Catalysts are the leading nonmetallurgical use for vanadium. The use of large-scale energy storage systems, which utilize vanadium in batteries, is expanding owing to the rise in energy production from renewable sources. The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) stores energy in a liquid electrolyte solution containing vanadium ions in different oxidation states. VRFB technology has become an increasingly crucial component of large-scale energy storage, offering the ability to store energy over medium to long durations in a safe manner, with a high safety rating. Prices In 2024, according to Argus Metals International, the average Chinese vanadium pentoxide price (98 percent V2O5) was $5.44/lb of contained vanadium, a 27 percent decrease compared with $7.50/lb in 2023. The annual average U.S. ferrovanadium price (78 to 82 percent V) decreased by 21 percent to $13.05/lb of contained vanadium in 2024 compared with $16.42/lb in 2023. Foreign trade The United States continued to be a net importer of many vanadium materials in 2024. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the United States imported (vanadium content) 1,750 t of FeV, 2,360 t of V2O5, and 139 t of other oxides and hydroxides of vanadium. Total imports for consumption of all vanadium-bearing materials decreased by 23 percent from 2023. In 2024, the United States exported (vanadium content) 67 t of FeV, 93 t of V2O5 and 427 t of other oxides and hydroxides of vanadium. Total exports of all vanadium-bearing materials increased by 32 percent from 2023. Outlook The majority of vanadium is used in steel production with consumption trends closely tied to fluctuations in steel production. As steel consumption grows and more specialized applications are required, the variety of steel grades containing vanadium continues to expand. The consumption of HSLA steels is expected to increase as the construction industry seeks to reduce the amount of steel required in its overall infrastructure projects, and therefore carbon emissions, while simultaneously enhancing strength and reducing weight. The outlook for vanadium consumption in nonferrous alloys is largely dependent on trends in demand for titanium alloys in business, commercial and military aircraft. As global environmental regulations tighten on fuels and waste, the recovery of elements like vanadium from spent catalysts and fossil fuel residues is anticipated to rise. While the steel industry remains the dominant consumer of vanadium, VRFBs are increasingly being deployed for large-scale energy storage solutions. As many countries work toward achieving renewable energy targets, VRFB storage presents a promising solution with the growing commercialization of VRFB technology; however, high capital and operating costs as well as limited vanadium feedstock availability and highly concentrated production in only a few countries remain the main drawbacks of VRFB technology. Alternate battery chemistries including lithium-ion, lead-ion and sodium-ion are being developed, but many of these are still in the early stages of research compared to the more established VRFB. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposed only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Vanadium: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 192–193, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025.pdfEnergy Fuels Inc., 2024, Energy Fuels announces Q3-2024 results, including active uranium mining and processing, successful rare earth production, and continuing to build a world-scale rare earth supply chain centered in the U.S. Accessed March 1, 2025, at https://investors.energyfuels.com/2024-10-31-Energy-Fuels-Announces-Q3-2024-Results,-Including-Active-Uranium-Mining-and-Processing,-Successful-Rare-Earth-Production,-and-Continuing-to-Build-a-World-Scale-Rare-Earth-Supply-Chain-Centered-in-the-U-S Vermiculite by Kristi J. Simmons, National Minerals Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey Vermiculite, a hydrated magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate, is extracted from near-surface deposits. In its raw form, vermiculite resembles mica and contains water molecules within its structure. It can appear in various colors, from black to shades of brown and yellow. When heated quickly to temperatures above 870 °C, the intermolecular water flashes into steam, causing the flakes to expand into gold- or bronze-colored, accordion-like particles. This process, known as exfoliation, results in an ultra-lightweight, chemically inert, fire-resistant and odorless material. Vermiculite was discovered in 1824 by Thomas H. Webb; however, the first successful commercial vermiculite mine did not begin production until the 1920s, when the Zonolite Co. began mining vermiculite in Libby, MT. Currently, there are two active vermiculite mining companies in the United States. Vermiculite, which gets its name from the Latin word vermiculare, meaning to breed worms, is mostly mined using traditional openpit methods. Production In 2024 an estimated 100 kt of vermiculite was produced in the United States from two mining companies: Specialty Vermiculite Corp. (a subsidiary of Dicalite Management Group Inc.) in Enoree, SC, and Virginia Vermiculite LLC in Louisa, VA. (Data have been rounded to the nearest hundred thousand tons to avoid disclosing proprietary company data.) An estimated 70 kt of vermiculite ore was exfoliated in 2024, a 19 percent increase from 59 kt in 2023. Exfoliation was performed by 11 companies operating 12 plants in seven states (Arizona, Arkansas, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania and South Carolina). In December 2024, The Strong Co. Inc., headquartered in Pine Bluff, AR, announced the acquisition of all manufacturing assets of Ambient Minerals Inc. located in Benton, AR. Ambient Minerals Inc. specializes in perlite and vermiculite products. Consumption Unexpanded vermiculite concentrate is predominantly utilized in fire protection products, although the majority of vermiculite is used in exfoliated form. Exfoliated vermiculite is valued for its diverse applications due to attributes such as fire resistance, high-absorption capacity, inertness, low density and low thermal conductivity. Agricultural uses (horticulture, soil conditioning and fertilizer carrier) were estimated to remain the leading uses of exfoliated vermiculite in 2024. When combined with peat, bark or compost, vermiculite enhances aeration and moisture retention, fostering rapid plant growth. Additional notable applications encompass aggregates (concrete, plaster and premixes), insulation (loose-fill, block, high-temperature and packing insulation) and sealants. Substitutes There are numerous alternatives to vermiculite. Expanded perlite, along with more cost-effective options like expanded clay, shale slag and slate, can replace exfoliated vermiculite in lightweight concrete and plaster. In the agricultural sector, substitutes include bark, other plant materials, peat, perlite, sawdust and synthetic soil conditioner. For loose-fill fireproofing insulation, alternatives include fiberglass, perlite and slag wood. Foreign trade Trade data for vermiculite concentrate are not collected as a separate category by the U.S. Census Bureau but are included within the group “vermiculite, perlite and chlorites, unexpanded.” Domestic exports and imports for consumption of vermiculite were estimated based on information published by the U.S. Census Bureau and adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey based on average unit value, countries known to produce vermiculite, and likely port destinations to eliminate other minerals reported in the same group. An estimated 40 kt of vermiculite valued at an estimated $18 million were imported into the United States in 2024. The majority of these imports, (85 percent) came from Brazil and South Africa. The United States produces finer-grade vermiculite concentrate and relies on imports for coarser than medium-sized concentrate. Exports were estimated to be 8 kt of vermiculite valued at an estimated $1.9 million in 2024 with Canada being the leading destination. International Global production of vermiculite was estimated to be 460 kt in 2024 compared with 458 kt in 2023. South Africa continued to be the leading vermiculite producing country followed, in descending order, by the United States and Brazil. Outlook The global production capacity of vermiculite consistently surpasses consumption. Notably, the production capacity for finer grades of vermiculite greatly exceeds that of coarser grades. Even though some consumers have turned to alternative materials in recent years, the global demand for vermiculite is expected to remain strong. Exploration and development of vermiculite deposits of all grades are anticipated to persist, while producers are likely to continue exploring innovative applications for vermiculite, particularly finer grades in high-value markets. References Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.U.S. Geological Survey, 2025, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025—Vermiculite: U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 194–195, https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2025.PB Commercial, 2024, Strong Co. Inc. takes assets of Benton firm: The Pine Bluff Commercial, Dec. 4. Accessed Jan. 16, 2025, at https://www.pbcommercial.com/news/2024/dec/04/strong-co-inc-takes-assets-of-benton-firm/ Zeolites by Wilfrid Balmer, Alcimex and Daniel T. Eyde, Cheto Partners Global market overview In 2024, the global natural zeolite market reached a value of about $1.77 billion, with a projected annual growth rate of 6 percent from 2025 to 2030. This growth is fueled by rising demand in water treatment, agriculture and industrial applications. Outside of the United States, there is a robust natural zeolite industry with a range of companies, from small regional producers to manufacturers exporting worldwide, but generally always focused on a single deposit. The value chain includes numerous distributors and increasingly sophisticated processing companies with a wide range of product offerings. Global production has stayed around 1 Mt annually, with the major producers being Slovakia (220 kt), China (150 kt), Indonesia (120 kt), Cuba (78 kt), the United States (81 kt) and Turkey (70 kt). It should be noted that these figures are largely underestimated and mainly take into account agricultural and environmental applications. In many regions of the world, particularly China and Eastern Europe, natural zeolites are primarily a raw material in the manufacture of cement. The quantities involved in this industry alone would be several million tones. In U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) statistics, cement applications are reported under pozzolan applications. U.S. industry changes In 2024, seven companies operated nine zeolite mines in six states and produced an estimated 81 kt of natural zeolites. Though 81 kt of zeolites were reportedly produced in 2024, sales totaled 73 kt, down about 3 kt from 2023. Animal feeds at 46 percent and odor control applications at 12 percent were the two largest markets. The major producers in the United States are St. Cloud Mining, Zeotech, Bear River Zeolites, KMI Zeolites, Teague Mineral Products and UOP LLC. Kirkland Mining Products and Zeodorizer produce zeolitized volcanic ash products. There were significant changes in the U.S. market in 2024. St. Cloud Mining Co. was acquired by Equalizer Inc., a distributor of bulk, feed and agricultural chemicals and petrochemical products through four distribution terminals in Texas and Nebraska. The purchase price was not disclosed. Bear River Zeolites is apparently on the hunt for acquisitions as well, though no specific targets have been mentioned. KMI Zeolites is in the process of closing its processing facility at Ash Meadows, CA. It plans to use a toll facility being constructed in Pahrump, NV. Teague Minerals and Zeotech may also decide to sell their operations. Prices Clinoptilolite remains the primary product at more than 90 percent of U.S. production. Chabazite remained at about 5 to 6 percent of production in 2024, with the remainder principally mordenite, phillipsite and ferrierite. Prices are generally negotiated; consequently, there are no published price quotes, though Bear River reports its average sales price per ton in the annual report of its parent company, US Antimony, and is a good benchmark for the industry. In 2024, Bear River produced 10,086 t at an average sale price of $291.50/t for clinoptilolite products, up from $267.30/t on 10,145 t in 2023. European producers Zeocem in Slovakia and Rota Mining in Turkey are the main European clinoptilolite producers. Zeocem is permanently investing to reduce its environmental impact, with a new phase of solar panel deployment. Its goal is to become the world’s leading eco-producer of natural zeolites. Other strategic investments concern production dedicated to the construction industry, particularly a wide range of micronized zeolites. European producers have suffered from the sharp increase in energy costs over the past three years. This is reflected in the ex works price, which has increased by an overall 40 percent. Added to this is the cost of freight, which has increased by almost 45 percent over five years and has a significant impact on the bill. With the exception of Zeocem, which is well developed in exports, and Rota Mining, whose location on the Mediterranean Sea opens the doors to the North African and Middle Eastern markets as well as European coastal areas, there has been a contraction in sales for most other producers, with relative stagnation for Italian chabazite/phillipsite producers (Verdi, IZ and ATZ) and most European producing countries. In 2024, Josab Hungary virtually stopped production in Ratka, and the company is reportedly for sale. Changes of ownership are also expected in Turkey. Alcimex in France has opted for a range of high-end products by offering its own formulations with a high level of technicality for the industry and elite sports fields. Markets Agriculture accounted for about 29 percent of the global market, with natural zeolites used as soil conditioners and fertilizers to enhance nutrient retention and improve crop yields. Animal feed accounted for 23 percent of the global market but nearly 46 percent of the U.S. market, driven by the inclusion of zeolites in livestock diets to improve digestion and feed efficiency. Feed lots and other large concentrations of animals are point sources of several effluents, odors and waste runoffs. There will be increasing regulatory pressure to mitigate the impact of these facilities. The water treatment segment is expected to grow at a rate of 6.4 percent over the next decade. Natural zeolites are valued for their ability to remove contaminants like heavy metals and ammonium from water due to their strong ion-exchange properties. The use of natural zeolites is increasingly widespread in Europe in water treatment. The European Committee for Standardization has established the EN 16070 standard, which specifies the characteristics of natural zeolites used in the treatment of water for human consumption. Cement, pozzolans and concrete additives make up the largest application segment, constituting 55 percent of the global market, in which zeolites are incorporated into lightweight concrete and cement to enhance strength and thermal insulation. This is a developing market in the United States and will probably be a western regional market, as the available resources are in the western states and not always well located to enable reasonable transportation costs. Other lesser markets include micronized zeolite, synthetic turf, odor and pollution control, and nuclear applications. Outlook Interest in natural zeolites and their integration into building material formulations has been growing steadily over the past two decades, driven by economic constraints and the need to develop materials with low carbon footprints and high durability. Today in Europe, maritime infrastructures integrate clinoptilolite-based concrete, reducing the penetration of chlorides into concrete exposed to seawater. Their use in road and hydraulic concrete has improved sulfate resistance and reduced plastic shrinkage. Restoration mortars based on chabazite/phillipsite are used on historical monuments, for their mineralogical compatibility and for their ability to limit saline efflorescence and salt migration. In the case of activated concretes and geopolymers, micronized zeolite activated by alkaline solutions rapidly release aluminosilicate species, participating in the formation of sodium alumino-silicate hydrate (NASH) or calcium alumino-silicate hydrate (CASH) gels in geopolymers and activated concretes. The incorporation of natural zeolites, raw or calcined, densifies the matrix, reduces porosity and increases mechanical strength. It is remarkable to note that Europe has followed a trajectory mainly focused on the technological and industrial development of the applied products, unlike other countries like the United States and China, which are particularly active in academic research. This contrast can be explained by several factors: Strong economic constraints, particularly the high cost of energy in Europe, have led manufacturers to prioritize low-carbon solutions and optimize the use of local natural resources such as zeolites. A demanding environmental regulatory framework favors the integration of natural and ecological materials, as buildings are responsible for approximately 50 percent of resource extraction and consumption and more than 30 percent of the total waste produced each year in the European Union (EU). The development of advanced technological process with, notably, the mastery of micronization and activation of natural zeolites. The positioning of European companies is therefore based on a pragmatic and innovative approach, where constraints have become drivers of development. This can be illustrated by the development of “low-carbon” cements. The EU aims for climate neutrality by 2050 with a net-zero greenhouse-gas-emissions economy. The cement industry alone accounts for 6 to 7 percent of global anthropogenic emissions. Therefore, the solution to the problem lies largely in the search for effective substitutes to replace part of the clinker in portland cement with secondary components, while optimizing the granulometry and composition of the cement. These efforts have led to a modification of the European standard EN 197-1 for general-purpose cements, which introduces new types of composite cements. These new types can contain from 6 to 80 percent of mineral additives, unlike traditional portland (CEM I), which is limited to 5 percent. This development leaves a prominent place for natural zeolites. However, this is only possible thanks to the development of processes like micronization. Current processes make it possible to obtain median diameters between 3 and 5 µm. Zirconium by Gaurav Jha, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad Zirconium is the 20th most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust and is mostly found in the form of silicates (ZrSiO4). Zirconium is a lustrous, gray-white metal mainly obtained from zircon sand. Zircon exhibits excellent corrosion resistance and high strength properties, which makes it workable in marine, industry and other metallurgical environments. Zirconium is found to be associated with heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile and monazite. Zirconium is extracted as a product or byproduct during the processing of heavy minerals containing beach sands. The major uses of zircon are in ceramics, foundry sands, opacifiers and refractories, and corrosion-resistant applications in the chemical processing industry. The major applications of zirconium metal are in the nuclear sector, where it is used to clad fuel rods, and in the chemical processing industries. Global resources of zirconium stand at 68 Mt, of which U.S. reserves are around 14 Mt. Australia has major reserves of around 50 Mt. Production and consumption Global zirconium production stands at around 1.5 Mt/a, with Australia, South Africa and China as major producers. Australia has led production numbers for many years due to its huge reserves. China, the European Union and the United States are key consumers, using zirconium in ceramics, refractories, chemicals, nuclear reactors and biomedical devices. Less than 0.1 Mt of ZrO2 was produced in the United States in 2024, similar to 2023. Domestic consumption of zirconium has been unchanged from 2019 to 2024. Exports and imports The United States exported 16 kt of zirconium oxide and imported 19 kt in 2024, down from 40.5 kt of exports and 22.6 kt of imports in 2019. Major import sources were South Africa, Australia and Senegal. Outlook Globally, production grew from 1.44 Mt to 1.5 Mt. Countries like Australia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Tanzania are taking several exploration and development initiatives. Attempts are also ongoing to recycle the spent zirconium, though the quantification is not yet achieved. Prices According to U.S. Geological Survey 2024 data, the price of zircon was $2,000/t in 2024, up significantly from $1,620/t in 2019. According to Shanghai Metal Exchange data, zirconium carbonate was priced at $2,623/t in May 2025. References U.S. Geological Survey, 2024, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2024.U.S. Geological Survey, 2022 Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022.V. Kalavathi, Rajesh Kumar Bhuyan, 2019, A detailed study on zirconium and its applications in manufacturing process with combinations of other metals, oxides and alloys – A review, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 19, Part 2, pp. 781-786, DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.130Shanghai Metal Exchange, https://www.metal.com/search?keyword=zirconium&type=price

Industrial Minerals review 2024

Authored by: Mike O’Driscoll, IMFORMED

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From sessions to strategy: Revealing long-term and emerging innovation trends in data analytics, intelligent systems and automation

Mining education gets federal boost as industry faces workforce crunch

Critical minerals management on the federal seabed

From sessions to strategy: Revealing long-term and emerging innovation trends in data analytics, intelligent systems and automation

Mining education gets federal boost as industry faces workforce crunch

Critical minerals management on the federal seabed

To view the past issues of the UCA magazine you must be a member of SME/UCA.

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